Explore the vast range of titles available.

Theology and Society is the most comprehensive study of Islamic intellectual and religious history, focusing on Muslim theology. With its emphasis on the eighth and ninth centuries CE, it remains the most detailed prosopographical study of the early phase of the formation of Islam. Originally published in German between 1991 and 1995, Theology and Society is a monument of scholarship and a unique scholarly enterprise which has stood the test of the time as an unparalleled reference work. The volume consists of a separate Bibliography, a General Index, an Index of Names, an Index of Works and an Index of Other Sources.

The aim of this article is to present two early examples of eye-witness-like reports found in Arabic historiography. The two events in question are the death of al-Marwān, the last Umayyad caliph, in 750 CE, and a massacre ordered or let happen by the new governor of Mosul, which took place in the same year. In the narration of the flight and killing of al-Marwān, the protection of the female family members is the main motive for al-Marwān’s actions. The Massacre of Mosul must have been a traumatic experience that endured in the collective memory, involving unprecedented atrocities against civilians. The historian al-Azdī (d. 945 CE) could base his account on the living tradition of the local families even 150 years after the event. There are reports from the perspectives both of victim and perpetrator. The prominent role of women is a characteristic feature of the narrations concerning both events. In the presentation of the texts, particular weight is given to details and nuances which communicate the emotional attitudes or the narrators towards the events and the moral lessons exemplified by them. This is the only way to recognize what could be called the “soul” of the text.

The topic of this article is the (“A Note on Earnings”), an early theological text, written by al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857). While several studies on the first part exist, the second part has been largely ignored. Its subject is the concept of (“scrupulousness”). The article contains a full translation and a commentary of the second part of the , based on the only preserved manuscript. At the beginning of the text, is defined as “to abstain from anything which displeases God.” This is about more than just the avoidance of what is forbidden and the fulfilment of what is commanded. There exist doubtful things ( ), for which it is unclear whether they fall under the forbidden or not. Piety demands avoidance of them. While religious law relates to human actions only, al-Muḥāsibī insists on the significance of “acting with the heart”. The pious must undertake a soul-searching ( ) before taking any action. Many concrete examples of scrupulous behavior are mentioned. One topic is how to earn a living. Some recommend earning it by the work of one’s hands, others prefer begging, and yet others prefer to live off rubbish, or even off herbage alone. Asceticism with its different forms of starvation is discussed. A larger topic is the question of cooperation with a potentially immoral government, and, more narrowly, how to proceed when illegal money is received, particularly in the case of inheritance, or what it means “to help” someone else by committing forbidden acts.

Theology and Society is the most comprehensive study of Islamic intellectual and religious history, focusing on Muslim theology. With its emphasis on the eighth and ninth centuries CE, it remains the most detailed prosopographical study of the early phase of the formation of Islam. Originally published in German between 1991 and 1995, Theology and Society is a monument of scholarship and a unique scholarly enterprise which has stood the test of time as an unparalleled reference work.

Theology and Society is the most comprehensive study of Islamic intellectual and religious history, focusing on Muslim theology. With its emphasis on the eighth and ninth centuries CE, it remains the most detailed prosopographical study of the early phase of the formation of Islam. Originally published in German between 1991 and 1995, Theology and Society is a monument of scholarship and a unique scholarly enterprise which has stood the test of time as an unparalleled reference work.

Theology and Society is the most comprehensive study of Islamic intellectual and religious history, focusing on Muslim theology. With its emphasis on the eighth and ninth centuries CE, it remains the most detailed prosopographical study of the early phase of the formation of Islam. Originally published in German between 1991 and 1995, Theology and Society is a monument of scholarship and a unique scholarly enterprise which has stood the test of time as an unparalleled reference work.

Theology and Society is the most comprehensive study of Islamic intellectual and religious history, focusing on Muslim theology. With its emphasis on the eighth and ninth centuries CE, it remains the most detailed prosopographical study of the early phase of the formation of Islam. Originally published in German between 1991 and 1995, Theology and Society is a monument of scholarship and a unique scholarly enterprise which has stood the test of time as an unparalleled reference work.

Unconcluded Studies: The Fratricide of Cain from a Theological View The story of Cain and Abel as it is told in the Qurʾān (Q 5:27–32), which follows closely that in the Bible (Gen 4:1–16), became the topic of various discussions among early Muslim theologians, especially Abel’s statement when threatened by Cain: “I wish you to take both your sin and my sin and become one of the companions of the Fire.” In the context of civil war, Abel’s pacifism became a paradigm of ideal behavior, and the notion of ridding oneself of sin through victimhood appeared attractive. It was used as a model in stories concerned with battles between Muslims, such as the battle of al-Ḥarra (683 CE), in which many Qurayshi notables and Qurʾān reciters from Medina were killed by the Syrian army. According to advice from the prophet Muḥammad, the correct behavior would have been not to participate in the fighting and, in the face of death, to quote Abel’s words. Whoever acts in this manner attains Paradise. However, some theologians denied the possibility that the burden of somebody’s sin could be transferred to another. The story was thus reinterpreted. In his commentary on the Qurʾān, al-Ṭabarī (d. 923 CE) proposed that Abel’s sentence should be understood differently: “I wish you to take your [previous] sin[s] and the sin against me …”, since he could accept neither that Abel committed a sin, nor the transfer of sin to somebody else.