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Growth and development of cereal crops are linked to weather, day length and growing degree-days (GDDs) which make them responsive to the specific environments in specific seasons. Global temperature is rising due to human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and clearance of woodlands for building construction. The rise in temperature disrupts crop growth and development. Disturbance mainly causes a shift in phenological development of crops and affects their economic yield. Scientists and farmers adapt to these phenological shifts, in part, by changing sowing time and cultivar shifts which may increase or decrease crop growth duration. Nonetheless, climate warming is a global phenomenon and cannot be avoided. In this scenario, food security can be ensured by improving cereal production through agronomic management, breeding of climate-adapted genotypes and increasing genetic biodiversity. In this review, climate warming, its impact and consequences are discussed with reference to their influences on phenological shifts. Furthermore, how different cereal crops adapt to climate warming by regulating their phenological development is elaborated. Based on the above mentioned discussion, different management strategies to cope with climate warming are suggested.

Boron-deficiency in Yermosols is among the major constraints to mungbean productivity and grain biofortification in Pakistan. However, agronomic strategies such as boron (B) seed priming have potential to improve mungbean yield and grain biofortification. Moreover, deficiency to toxicity range for B is very narrow; therefore, it is pre-requisite to optimize its dose before field evaluation. A wire house experiment was planned out to reconnoiter the impact of seed priming with B on growth and quality of two cultivars of mungbean, i.e., ‘NM-2011’ and ‘NM-2016’. Four different B levels were used as seed priming, i.e., 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1% and 1.0% B, (borax Na 2 B 4 O 7 .10H 2 O, 11.5% B) were tested, whereas hydropriming was regarded as control. Seed priming with 0.01% B significantly (p≤0.05) lowered time taken to start germination and time to reach 50% emergence, whereas improved mean emergence time, emergence index, final emergence percentage, number of leaves, dry and fresh weight of root, shoot, and total weight, root length, plant height, chlorophyll contents, number of pods and 100-grain weight, seeds per plant, grain yield per plant, B concentrations in stem and grain, grain protein, carbohydrate and fiber in both cultivars. Boron seed priming proved beneficial under a specific range; however, deficiency (hydropriming) and excess (above 0.01% B) of B were detrimental for mungbean growth and productivity. The cultivar ‘NM-2016’ had significantly (p≤0.05) higher yield due to prominent increase in yield related traits with 0.01% B priming as compared to ‘NM-2011’. In conclusion, B seed priming (0.01% B) seemed a feasible choice for improving mungbean growth, yield related traits and grain-B concentration of mungbean on Yermosols.

Understanding the reasons for the yield gap between potential and actual yield can provide insights for enhancing canola production by adapting measures for ensuring food security. The canola yield gap under different management practices (e.g. water, nitrogen, N- and sowing dates) was quantified using research trials that were conducted at on-station and historical data (1980–2016) and the CROPGRO-Canola model for Punjab, Pakistan. The integrated approach revealed that low inputs of N, the amount of irrigation, sowing date and the use of seeds from home stocks were the principal causes for a low yield. The CROPGRO-Canola model was able to simulate the canola yield from research trials ( R 2 = >0.90) and farm survey data ( R 2 = 0.63). The average yield gap between potential ( Y P ), N-limited ( Y NL ), water-limited ( Y WL ), N- and water-limited ( Y NWL ), and overall farmer field yield ( Y OFF ) was 50, 46, 62 and 72%, respectively. The yield-gap with achievable yield ( Y A ) for Y NL , Y WL , Y NWL and Y OFF was 34, 28, 49 and 63%, respectively. Overall, the results showed that a high canola yield for farmers’ fields can be obtained by selecting appropriate varieties and sowing dates with N rate of 120 kg/ha and efficient irrigation management. However, further studies are necessary to fully comprehend the underlying causes for the low actual yield and the high yield variability of farmers’ fields.

Understanding the impact of the warming trend on phenological stages and phases of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in central and lower Punjab, Pakistan, may assist in optimizing crop management practices to enhance production. This study determined the influence of the thermal trend on cotton phenology from 1980–2015 in 15 selected locations. The results demonstrated that observed phenological stages including sowing (S), emergence (E), anthesis (A) and physiological maturity (M) occurred earlier by, on average, 5.35, 5.08, 2.87 and 1.12 days decade−1, respectively. Phenological phases, sowing anthesis (S-A), anthesis to maturity (A-M) and sowing to maturity (S-M) were reduced by, on average, 2.45, 1.76 and 4.23 days decade−1, respectively. Observed sowing, emergence, anthesis and maturity were negatively correlated with air temperature by, on average, −2.03, −1.93, −1.09 and −0.42 days °C−1, respectively. Observed sowing-anthesis, anthesis to maturity and sowing-maturity were also negatively correlated with temperature by, on average, −0.94, −0.67 and −1.61 days °C−1, respectively. Applying the cropping system model CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton model using a standard variety in all locations indicated that the model-predicted phenology accelerated more due to warming trends than field-observed phenology. However, 30.21% of the harmful influence of the thermal trend was compensated as a result of introducing new cotton cultivars with higher growing degree day (thermal time) requirements. Therefore, new cotton cultivars which have higher thermal times and are high temperature tolerant should be evolved.

Resources are limited, thus improving resource use efficiency is a key objective for cereal-based cropping systems. This field study was carried out to quantify resource use efficiencies in selected C3 and C4 cereals under split nitrogen (N) application regimes. The study included the following treatments: six cereals (three C3: wheat, oat, and barley; and three C4: maize, millet, and sorghum) and four split N application regimes (NS1 = full amount of N at sowing; NS2 = half N at sowing + half N at first irrigation; NS3 = ⅓ N at sowing + ⅓ N at first irrigation + ⅓ N at second irrigation; NS4 = ¼ N at sowing + ¼ N at first irrigation + ¼ N at second irrigation + ¼ N at third irrigation). Results revealed that C4 cereals out-yielded C3 cereals in terms of biomass production, grain yield, and resource use efficiencies (i.e., radiation use efficiency (RUE) and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)), while splitting N into three applications proved to be a better strategy for all of the selected winter and summer cereals. The results suggest that C4 cereals should be added into existing cereal-based cropping systems and N application done in three installments to boost productivity and higher resource use efficiency to ensure food security for the burgeoning population.

Boron-deficiency in Yermosols is among the major constraints to mungbean productivity and grain biofortification in Pakistan. However, agronomic strategies such as boron (B) seed priming have potential to improve mungbean yield and grain biofortification. Moreover, deficiency to toxicity range for B is very narrow; therefore, it is pre-requisite to optimize its dose before field evaluation. A wire house experiment was planned out to reconnoiter the impact of seed priming with B on growth and quality of two cultivars of mungbean, i.e., 'NM-2011' and 'NM-2016'. Four different B levels were used as seed priming, i.e., 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1% and 1.0% B, (borax Na.sub.2 B.sub.4 O.sub.7 .10H.sub.2 O, 11.5% B) were tested, whereas hydropriming was regarded as control. Seed priming with 0.01% B significantly (p[less than or equal to]0.05) lowered time taken to start germination and time to reach 50% emergence, whereas improved mean emergence time, emergence index, final emergence percentage, number of leaves, dry and fresh weight of root, shoot, and total weight, root length, plant height, chlorophyll contents, number of pods and 100-grain weight, seeds per plant, grain yield per plant, B concentrations in stem and grain, grain protein, carbohydrate and fiber in both cultivars. Boron seed priming proved beneficial under a specific range; however, deficiency (hydropriming) and excess (above 0.01% B) of B were detrimental for mungbean growth and productivity. The cultivar 'NM-2016' had significantly (p[less than or equal to]0.05) higher yield due to prominent increase in yield related traits with 0.01% B priming as compared to 'NM-2011'. In conclusion, B seed priming (0.01% B) seemed a feasible choice for improving mungbean growth, yield related traits and grain-B concentration of mungbean on Yermosols.

Ratooning of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is process of obtaining grain from tillers that grow from crop stubbles that have already been harvested. Ratooning has gained attention since it has a potential for obtaining yield with conventional techniques. Field experiment was conducted during 2021–2022 at the research farm, Institute of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Punjab, Pakistan. The response of various nitrogen (N) levels (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha − 1 ) was studied on the growth and yield of three rice cultivars (Guard Lp-02, Guard Lp-18, and Super Fine) grown as ratoon rice. In cultivars, Guard Lp-02 and Guard Lp-18 were hybrid but Super Fine was a non-hybrid cultivar. The hybrid cultivars showed a significant response to N levels. The cultivar Guard Lp-18 with higher level of N 100 kg ha − 1 resulted in more plant height, total tillers, fertile tiller, panicle length, and biological yield while the higher number of branches and grains per panicle, 1000-grain weight, and grain yield was achieved by Guard Lp-18 with the application of 75 kg N ha − 1 . Maximum agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE) and economic nitrogen use efficiency (ENUE) was observed at cultivar Guard Lp-18 with N level of 50 kg ha − 1 . Likewise, water use efficiency (WUE) was recorded maximum at cultivar Guard Lp-18 with N level 75 kg ha − 1 . The highest gross income, net income, and benefit cost ratio (BCR) were noted at 75 kg N ha − 1 among all cultivars but Guard Lp-18 with 75 kg N ha − 1 respond better in ratoon rice. Among rice cultivars, hybrid rice performed better and out yielded non-hybrid cultivars in ratoon rice. The findings of this study revealed that growing ratoon rice will be helpful for increasing farm income; enhancing resources use efficiency and ensuring food security under prevailing agro-climatic conditions of Punjab, Pakistan.

Crop phenology influences the partitioning of assimilates, crop yield and agronomic management under a changing climate. It is critical to quantify the interaction between climate warming and crop management on sugarcane phenology to understand the adaptation of crop to climate change. Similarly, in crop modeling, parameterizing the phenology of new crop varieties is a major challenge. Historical changes between 1980 and 2014 in spring and autumn sugarcane phenology have been observed in Punjab, Pakistan. Planting, emergence, stalk elongation, peak population and harvest dates advanced by a mean of 2.87, 2.63, 4.47, 5.01 and 6.41 d decade⁻¹, respectively for spring sugarcane, and were delayed by 6.59, 6.21, 4.38, 3.13 and 2.17 d decade⁻¹, respectively for autumn sugarcane. Similarly, planting to stalk elongation, stalk elongation to peak population and peak population to harvesting and planting to harvesting phases were shortened by a mean of 1.60, 0.54, 1.40 and 3.54 d decade⁻¹, respectively for spring sugarcane and 2.21, 1.25, 0.96 and 4.42 d decade⁻¹, respectively for autumn sugarcane. The changes in phenological characteristics of spring and autumn sugarcane were significantly correlated with rising temperature for the period 1980−2014. Application of the CSM-CANEGRO-sugarcane model to simulate sugarcane phenology for a single cultivar at each site across years revealed that simulated phenological characteristics of sugarcane were accelerated with climate warming. We conclude that, during 1980 to 2014, advancement of planting date for spring sugarcane and delay in planting autumn sugarcane, together with adoption by farmers of new cultivars with higher total growing degree-day requirements, have partially mitigated the negative influence of climate-change induced thermal trends on phenological characteristics of spring and autumn sugarcane.

Resources are limited, thus improving resource use efficiency is a key objective for cereal-based cropping systems. This field study was carried out to quantify resource use efficiencies in selected C3 and C4 cereals under split nitrogen (N) application regimes. The study included the following treatments: six cereals (three C3: wheat, oat, and barley; and three C4: maize, millet, and sorghum) and four split N application regimes (NS1 = full amount of N at sowing; NS2 = half N at sowing + half N at first irrigation; NS3 = ⅓ N at sowing + ⅓ N at first irrigation + ⅓ N at second irrigation; NS4 = ¼ N at sowing + ¼ N at first irrigation + ¼ N at second irrigation + ¼ N at third irrigation). Results revealed that C4 cereals out-yielded C3 cereals in terms of biomass production, grain yield, and resource use efficiencies (i.e., radiation use efficiency (RUE) and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)), while splitting N into three applications proved to be a better strategy for all of the selected winter and summer cereals. The results suggest that C4 cereals should be added into existing cereal-based cropping systems and N application done in three installments to boost productivity and higher resource use efficiency to ensure food security for the burgeoning population.