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1. One approach to biodiversity conservation is to set aside small woodland key habitats (WKHs) in intensively managed landscapes. The aim is to support species, such as epiphytes, which often depend on old trees and are negatively affected by intensive forestry. However, it is not known whether the number of host trees within these areas can sustain species in the long term. 2. We studied metapopulation dynamics and assessed the future persistence of epiphytes assuming host tree numbers similar to those observed in large north European WKHs. The study species were seven cyanolichens confined to Populus trémula in the boreal study area. Colonizations and extinctions were recorded in 2008 on trees that had been surveyed 13 years earlier. We applied generalized (non) linear models to test the importance of environmental conditions, facilitation and spatial connectivity on the metapopulation dynamics. We also simulated the effects of tree numbers and tree fall rates on future species persistence. 3. Metapopulation dynamics were explained by tree quality, size or tree fall. In one species, colonizations increased with increasing connectivity, and in a second species it increased if other lichens sharing the photobiont with the focal species were present, suggesting facilitation. Both stochastic extinctions from standing trees and deterministic extinctions caused by tree fall should be accounted for in projecting epiphyte metapopulation dynamics. 4. One to three infrequent, sexually dispersed study species face a significant extinction risk within 50 years, especially in areas with low tree numbers. 5.Synthesis and applications.During the coming decades, infrequent, sexually dispersed, epiphytic lichens are likely to be lost from small woodland habitat set asides in intensively managed landscapes.Local extinction will be a consequence of low colonization rates and tree fall. Low colonization rates can be prevented by retaining large trees on which lichen species colonization rates are the highest and by assuring a high density of occupied trees. The negative effect of tree fall should be compensated for by assuring continuous availability of old trees. This can be achieved by decreasing the populations of large browsers, or by retaining trees with high conservation value during management operations.

Summary Industrial forestry typically leads to a simplified forest structure and altered species composition. Retention of trees at harvest was introduced about 25 years ago to mitigate negative impacts on biodiversity, mainly from clearcutting, and is now widely practiced in boreal and temperate regions. Despite numerous studies on response of flora and fauna to retention, no comprehensive review has summarized its effects on biodiversity in comparison to clearcuts as well as un‐harvested forests. Using a systematic review protocol, we completed a meta‐analysis of 78 studies including 944 comparisons of biodiversity between retention cuts and either clearcuts or un‐harvested forests, with the main objective of assessing whether retention forestry helps, at least in the short term, to moderate the negative effects of clearcutting on flora and fauna. Retention cuts supported higher richness and a greater abundance of forest species than clearcuts as well as higher richness and abundance of open‐habitat species than un‐harvested forests. For all species taken together (i.e. forest species, open‐habitat species, generalist species and unclassified species), richness was higher in retention cuts than in clearcuts. Retention cuts had negative impacts on some species compared to un‐harvested forest, indicating that certain forest‐interior species may not survive in retention cuts. Similarly, retention cuts were less suitable for some open‐habitat species compared with clearcuts. Positive effects of retention cuts on richness of forest species increased with proportion of retained trees and time since harvest, but there were not enough data to analyse possible threshold effects, that is, levels at which effects on biodiversity diminish. Spatial arrangement of the trees (aggregated vs. dispersed) had no effect on either forest species or open‐habitat species, although limited data may have hindered our capacity to identify responses. Results for different comparisons were largely consistent among taxonomic groups for forest and open‐habitat species, respectively. Synthesis and applications. Our meta‐analysis provides support for wider use of retention forestry since it moderates negative harvesting impacts on biodiversity. Hence, it is a promising approach for integrating biodiversity conservation and production forestry, although identifying optimal solutions between these two goals may need further attention. Nevertheless, retention forestry will not substitute for conservation actions targeting certain highly specialized species associated with forest‐interior or open‐habitat conditions. Our meta‐analysis provides support for wider use of retention forestry since it moderates negative harvesting impacts on biodiversity. Hence, it is a promising approach for integrating biodiversity conservation and production forestry, although identifying optimal solutions between these two goals may need further attention. Nevertheless, retention forestry will not substitute for conservation actions targeting certain highly specialized species associated with forest‐interior or open‐habitat conditions.

Industrial forestry typically leads to a simplified forest structure and altered species composition. Retention of trees at harvest was introduced about 25 years ago to mitigate negative impacts on biodiversity, mainly from clearcutting, and is now widely practiced in boreal and temperate regions. Despite numerous studies on response of flora and fauna to retention, no comprehensive review has summarized its effects on biodiversity in comparison to clearcuts as well as un‐harvested forests. Using a systematic review protocol, we completed a meta‐analysis of 78 studies including 944 comparisons of biodiversity between retention cuts and either clearcuts or un‐harvested forests, with the main objective of assessing whether retention forestry helps, at least in the short term, to moderate the negative effects of clearcutting on flora and fauna. Retention cuts supported higher richness and a greater abundance of forest species than clearcuts as well as higher richness and abundance of open‐habitat species than un‐harvested forests. For all species taken together (i.e. forest species, open‐habitat species, generalist species and unclassified species), richness was higher in retention cuts than in clearcuts. Retention cuts had negative impacts on some species compared to un‐harvested forest, indicating that certain forest‐interior species may not survive in retention cuts. Similarly, retention cuts were less suitable for some open‐habitat species compared with clearcuts. Positive effects of retention cuts on richness of forest species increased with proportion of retained trees and time since harvest, but there were not enough data to analyse possible threshold effects, that is, levels at which effects on biodiversity diminish. Spatial arrangement of the trees (aggregated vs. dispersed) had no effect on either forest species or open‐habitat species, although limited data may have hindered our capacity to identify responses. Results for different comparisons were largely consistent among taxonomic groups for forest and open‐habitat species, respectively. Synthesis and applications. Our meta‐analysis provides support for wider use of retention forestry since it moderates negative harvesting impacts on biodiversity. Hence, it is a promising approach for integrating biodiversity conservation and production forestry, although identifying optimal solutions between these two goals may need further attention. Nevertheless, retention forestry will not substitute for conservation actions targeting certain highly specialized species associated with forest‐interior or open‐habitat conditions.

We studied lichen photobiont diversity patterns of three epiphytic Nephroma species in a 900-ha boreal forest landscape using cyanobacterial tRNALeu (UAA) intron sequences. Our aim was to investigate if there was a link between lichen species identity, reproductive strategy, and photobiont selectivity. We show high photobiont specificity and selectivity within the forest landscape: only five closely related tRNALeu (UAA) intron genotypes were found from 232 Nephroma thalli. Two Nostoc genotypes were shared by N. bellum and N. resupinatum, while N. parile associated with two different genotypes. One genotype was only found from some specimens of N. resupinatum. On a single tree trunk all thalli of an individual lichen species usually housed the same photobiont strain, and the lichen species that mainly dispersed with fungal diaspores (N. bellum and N. resupinatum) usually shared identical photobionts. Both patterns were attributed to a founder effect presumably caused by relatively low colonization rates between trees. The photobiont spectrum of the symbiotically dispersing N. parile indicates that it maintained its own cyanobacterial symbionts. Our study shows that mycobionts of the diverse Nephroma guild do not exchange their cyanobacterial photobionts at random, and that reproductive strategy is reflected in species photobiont choice.

In symbiotic systems, patterns of symbiont diversity and selectivity are crucial for the understanding of fundamental ecological processes such as dispersal and establishment. The lichen genus Nephroma (Peltigerales, Ascomycota) has a nearly cosmopolitan distribution and is thus an attractive model for the study of symbiotic interactions over a wide range of spatial scales. In this study, we analyze the genetic diversity of Nephroma mycobionts and their associated Nostoc photobionts within a global framework. The study is based on Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequences of fungal symbionts and tRNALeu (UAA) intron sequences of cyanobacterial symbionts. The full data set includes 271 Nephroma and 358 Nostoc sequences, with over 150 sequence pairs known to originate from the same lichen thalli. Our results show that all bipartite Nephroma species associate with one group of Nostoc different from Nostoc typically found in tripartite Nephroma species. This conserved association appears to have been inherited from the common ancestor of all extant species. While specific associations between some symbiont genotypes can be observed over vast distances, both symbionts tend to show genetic differentiation over wide geographic scales. Most bipartite Nephroma species share their Nostoc symbionts with one or more other fungal taxa, and no fungal species associates solely with a single Nostoc genotype, supporting the concept of functional lichen guilds. Symbiont selectivity patterns within these lichens are best described as a geographic mosaic, with higher selectivity locally than globally. This may reflect specific habitat preferences of particular symbiont combinations, but also the influence of founder effects. We analyzed the genetic diversity of Nephroma mycobionts and their associated Nostoc photobionts to exemplify symbiont diversity patterns on a global scale.

The relative strengths of the effects of forest edges and recreational use on understorey vegetation were studied at sub-xeric boreal urban forest edges in the greater Helsinki region, Finland. The study was performed at northern, eastern, southern and western edges, and vegetation sample plots were placed on, next to and away from paths with different trampling intensities 0-107 m from the forest edges. We found that human trampling altered vegetation more than the effects of forest edges. Vegetation changed dramatically on paths and the effects of path edges were seen in seemingly untrampled vegetation at least up to 4 m from the path edge. However, our results suggested that the effect of the edge may penetrate up to 50 m into forest interiors. Changes in vegetation composition indicated that the effects of the edge were stronger at eastern, southern and western than at northern edges.

Purpose The recognition of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) is an important part of daily clinical work. However, medical education in this field is mostly drug-based and does not address adequately the complexity of this field regarding individual risk factors and polypharmacy. This study investigates the potential of the web-based serious game SeeMe (side-effect exposure—medical education) in pharmacological education of medical students to improve the recognition of relevant ADRs. Methods One hundred fifty-seven medical students were recruited to evaluate the serious game SeeMe . SeeMe was developed to improve knowledge and recognition of ADRs in clinical practice. Players take on the role of a physician trying to understand fictional patients with ADRs. Before and after an 8-week playing period, an evaluation was carried out through a pre- and post-questionnaire and a pre- and post- knowledge test. Results The students achieved significantly better results in the knowledge test, as almost twice as many exam-relevant questions were answered correctly ( p  < 0.001). The serious game had a positive effect on the students’ perception of the importance of ADRs. Conclusion This study demonstrates the potential of web- and case-based fictional serious games in medical education. The improved recognition of side effects represents a crucial step for education and training in clinical pharmacology. Future versions of the serious game may take this further and focus on training in the treatment of ADRs and their relevance in various healthcare professions.