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Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic intracellular parasite of particular concern in the conservation of wildlife due to its ability to infect all homeotherms and potentially cause acute fatal disease in naive species. In the Galapagos (Ecuador), an archipelago composed of more than a hundred islets and islands, the presence of T . gondii can be attributed to human-introduced domestic cats, but little is known about its transmission in wildlife populations. We compared the prevalence of antibodies against T . gondii in sympatric Galapagos wild bird species that differ in diet and contact with oocyst-contaminated soil to determine the relative importance of trophic habits as an exposure factor. Plasma samples were obtained from 163 land birds inhabiting Santa Cruz, one of the cat-inhabited islands, and from 187 seabirds breeding in cat-free surrounding islands (Daphne Major, North Seymour, and South Plaza). These samples were tested for the presence of T . gondii antibodies using the modified agglutination test (MAT ≥ 1:10). All seven species of land birds and 4/6 species of seabirds presented seropositive results. All great frigatebirds ( Fregata minor ) (N = 25) and swallow-tailed gulls ( Creagrus furcatus ) (N = 23) were seronegative. Prevalence ranged from 13% in Nazca boobies ( Sula granti ) to 100% in Galapagos mockingbirds ( Mimus parvulus ). It decreased from occasional carnivores (63.43%) to granivores-insectivores (26.22%), and strict piscivores (14.62%). These results indicate that the consumption of tissue cysts poses the highest risk of exposure to T . gondii for Galapagos birds, followed by the ingestion of plants and insects contaminated by oocysts as important transmission pathways.

Agricultural landscapes hold great potential for biodiversity conservation; however, this will require finding solutions that work for both people and nature. Increasingly, the conservation community is calling for more cross‐disciplinary research integrating ecological questions with social and behavioural sciences for a more complete and successful approach to conservation. Here, we used a mixed methods approach, including 53 in‐person interviews, to examine how small‐scale farmers in the Galapagos Islands perceive landbirds and their ecosystem (dis)services. We also studied farmers' motivations and hesitations in planting native trees on their farms, an action that was identified to be critical for landbird conservation in Galapagos in previous ecological studies. We found that all native landbirds provided important cultural ecosystem services (CES) to farmers, with some variation between species. We also found that perceptions around pest control and pollination services were more variable and that landbirds were generally highly liked, even those who provided disservices such as crop damage. Most farmers were willing to plant native and endemic trees on their farms, although typically only in small quantities. Farmers' main motivations for planting trees were instrumental (e.g. shade/freshness), while their primary hesitation was a perceived lack of space on their farms. The main predictor of willingness was the prior presence of native trees on their farm. Synthesis and applications: Our results suggest tree‐planting conservation efforts should be adaptive, context‐dependent, and leverage incentives and community events for farmers. As a starting point, we recommend working with larger farms and with farmers interested in agrotourism for farmland restoration, recognizing that birdwatching has untapped potential in Galapagos. We further suggest focusing conservation messaging for the local community on the CES we identify for specific Galapagos landbirds, since CES are linked to people's motivations to care for nature. Finally, more research is needed to explore what ‘Galapagos identity’ means since we found it to be associated with farmers' landbird perspectives and willingness to plant trees, and self‐identity can drive pro‐environmental behaviours. We also recommend more research to understand the pest control services landbirds may be providing, if any, in the agricultural zone. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Resumen Existe un gran potencial para la conservación de la biodiversidad en los paisajes agropecuarios, pero esto requerirá encontrar soluciones que funcionen tanto para las personas como para la naturaleza. La comunidad conservacionista exige más investigaciones interdisciplinarias que integren la ecología con ciencias sociales para lograr un enfoque más completo y exitoso para la conservación. Aquí, hemos usado métodos mixtos, incluyendo 53 encuestas presenciales, para entender mejor las percepciones de productores/as en las islas Galápagos, sobre las aves terrestres y la provisión de los servicios y diservicios ecosistémicos en la producción agropecuaria. También estudiamos las motivaciones y preocupaciones de las y los productores para plantar árboles endémicos y nativos en sus fincas, una acción que fue identificada como crítica para la conservación de aves en Galápagos en estudios ecológicos previos. Descubrimos que todas las aves nativas brindan servicios ecosistémicos culturales importantes a las y los productores, y que estos varían entre especies. También descubrimos que las percepciones en torno a la polinización y el control de plagas eran más variables y que las aves en general eran apreciadas, incluso aquellas que causaban perjuicios como daño a los cultivos. La mayoría de las y los productores estaban dispuestos a sembrar árboles endémicos y nativos en sus fincas, aunque sólo en pequeñas cantidades. Las principales motivaciones para plantar árboles son los beneficios que aportarían como sombra y frescura, y la principal preocupación fue la disponibilidad limitada de tierra. El principal predictor de la disposición fue si el agricultor ya tenía árboles nativos en su finca. Nuestros resultados indican que los esfuerzos de restauración deben ser adaptativos y considerar el contexto específico de cada finca. También sugieren que el uso de incentivos y la organización de eventos comunitarios son importantes para las y los productores. Para empezar, recomendamos trabajar con fincas más grandes que disponen del espacio necesario y con productores interesados en el agroturismo, reconociendo que la ornitología tiene un gran potencial en Galápagos, el cual podría ser mejor aprovechado. Sugerimos centrar mensajes de conservación para la comunidad local en los servicios ecosistémicos culturales que identificamos para las especies de aves preferidas, dado que estos servicios ecosistémicos culturales están vinculados a las motivaciones de las personas para cuidar de la naturaleza. Finalmente, se necesitan más estudios para comprender mejor la “identidad Galapagueño/a” ya que encontramos que está asociada con las perspectivas de los productores sobre las aves terrestres y su disposición a plantar árboles. También recomendamos estudios para comprender mejor los servicios de control de plagas proporcionado por las aves en la zona agropecuaria. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The invasive parasitic nest fly Philornis downsi poses a severe threat to the conservation of Galapagos’ endemic landbirds, including Darwin’s finches. Therefore, the development of effective stop-gap methods is required to mitigate its harmful impact until long-term solutions are found. This study aims to enhance the usability of two insecticide-based control methods designed to reduce fly infestation: 1) Self-fumigation during which birds incorporate insecticide-treated nesting material into their nests, and 2) the Spritz technique, which involves spraying insecticide around the nest entrance to prevent female flies from entering nests to lay eggs. To improve the efficacy and broaden the applicability of self-fumigation across species, we tested the effects of two insecticides using this method (Cyromazine and Permacap CS ® ) on per-nest P. downsi abundance and fledging success in three Darwin’s finch species, Small Ground-finch ( Geospiza fuliginosa ), Small Tree-finch ( Camarhynchus parvulus ), and Green Warbler-finch ( Certhidea olivacea ). We employed a stepwise approach to optimize method efficacy through variation in the insecticide used and its dosage, dispenser setup, and the type of material offered to birds. Cyromazine was effective in reducing P. downsi abundance, but did not result in increased fledging success. Permacap-treated materials at 0.5% and 1% concentrations significantly increased fledging success. Four nesting materials offered in dispensers placed 4 m high were widely accepted by Darwin’s finches. For the Spritz technique, we also tested the effects of the two Permacap concentrations on P. downsi abundance and fledging success over two consecutive breeding seasons. Using a novel, lightweight, and pole-compatible spraying device with 0.5% Permacap, fledging success improved significantly across all tested finch species, while minimizing nest abandonment risk. These methods offer immediate, effective solutions for P. downsi control, and for improving fledging success in Darwin’s finches, potentially reducing extinction risks for some of the Galapagos’ most threatened species, and marking a critical step in preserving the archipelago’s unique avian diversity.

The Avian Vampire Fly, Philornis downsi, has invaded the Galapagos Islands, where it causes high mortality of endemic and native landbird species, including most species of Darwin’s finches. Control methods are under development, but key information is missing about the reproductive biology of P. downsi and the behavior of flies in and near nests of their hosts. We used external and internal nest cameras to record the behavior of P. downsi adults within and outside nests of the Galapagos Flycatcher, Myiarchus magnirostris, throughout all stages of the nesting cycle. These recordings showed that P. downsi visited flycatcher nests throughout the day with higher fly activity during the nestling phase during vespertine hours. The observations also revealed that multiple P. downsi individuals can visit nests concurrently, and that there are some interactions among these flies within the nest. Fly visitation to nests occurred significantly more often while parent birds were away from the nest than in the nest, and this timing appears to be a strategy to avoid predation by parent birds. We report fly mating behavior outside the nest but not in the nest cavity. We discuss the relevance of these findings for the adaptive forces shaping P. downsi life history strategies as well as rearing and control measures.

Invasive alien parasites and pathogens are a growing threat to biodiversity worldwide, which can contribute to the extinction of endemic species. On the Galápagos Islands, the invasive parasitic fly Philornis downsi poses a major threat to the endemic avifauna. Here, we investigated the influence of this parasite on the breeding success of two Darwin's finch species, the warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) and the sympatric small tree finch (Camarhynchus parvulus), on Santa Cruz Island in 2010 and 2012. While the population of the small tree finch appeared to be stable, the warbler finch has experienced a dramatic decline in population size on Santa Cruz Island since 1997. We aimed to identify whether warbler finches are particularly vulnerable during different stages of the breeding cycle. Contrary to our prediction, breeding success was lower in the small tree finch than in the warbler finch. In both species P. downsi had a strong negative impact on breeding success and our data suggest that heavy rain events also lowered the fledging success. On the one hand parents might be less efficient in compensating their chicks' energy loss due to parasitism as they might be less efficient in foraging on days of heavy rain. On the other hand, intense rainfalls might lead to increased humidity and more rapid cooling of the nests. In the case of the warbler finch we found that the control of invasive plant species with herbicides had a significant additive negative impact on the breeding success. It is very likely that the availability of insects (i.e. food abundance)is lower in such controlled areas, as herbicide usage led to the removal of the entire understory. Predation seems to be a minor factor in brood loss.

The introduced smooth-billed ani Crotophaga ani has become widespread across the Galápagos archipelago in the past half-century. It is known to predate upon a range of native and endemic species, and is a potential vector for the spread of invasive plants and parasites. Here we report previously undocumented examples of smooth-billed ani predation in Galápagos, including that of an endemic racer snake and a scorpion. We highlight the possibility of smooth-billed anis having a serious impact on the endemic Galápagos carpenter bee, a major pollinator, as well as native and endemic Lepidopterans and other invertebrates. In addition, we report smooth-billed ani predation of other introduced species and note the importance of further research on the wide-scale impacts of smooth-billed anis in Galápagos and their role within the archipelago’s ecological networks.

In the midst of a biodiversity crisis, it is important to conserve diversity at all levels, including species, genetic, and behavioural diversity. Animals with different behavioural traits can interact with their environment in distinct ways; hence, the distribution of behavioural traits within a population can influence the efficacy and outcome of conservation interventions. On the Galápagos Islands, Darwin’s finches are threatened by an invasive parasite, the avian vampire fly, Philornis downsi . Avian vampire fly larvae develop in the base of the nest, where they feed on the blood and tissue of developing nestlings, causing high mortality. In this study on Floreana Island, we deployed dispensers filled with insecticide-treated nesting material, a conservation method that has been found to decrease parasite load and increase fledging success. We then assessed whether individual differences in Darwin’s finch neophilia (response to a novel object) and aggressiveness (response to a simulated territory intrusion) affected their use of treated material. We found that ~57% of nests contained treated nesting material and that increasing volumes of treated material were associated with decreased parasite load. We found no effect of neophilia or aggressiveness on the probability of using treated material or amount of treated material used. Our results support nesting material dispensers as an effective conservation measure that conserves the full range of behavioural responses. To increase the efficacy of this method, future research should consider species- and individual-level preferences for material type and dispenser location.

The endemic Galapagos Martin Progne modesta is a rare species. Population sizes in the past are unknown, but the few reports available suggest that it has become rarer in some sites. To obtain a better understanding of its population status, a simultaneous survey was conducted in 2017 around the coastline of 14 islands and 23 islets resulting in sightings of only 26 individuals. A simultaneous survey on Sierra Negra volcano on Isabela Island added five more individuals. However, observations from early expeditions and expeditions since 2015 have shown that the volcanoes of Isabela Island are important feeding areas and probable breeding areas for the Galapagos Martin, but these were largely excluded from the survey in 2017 due to logistical reasons. Historical and recent nesting sites include Tagus Cove on Isabela Island and Daphne Major Island. During our 2017 count, three possible new nesting sites were discovered: Daphne Minor, Santiago and a small crater on Punta Cristóbal on southwestern Isabela Island. From 2015 to 2018, 15 nests were also observed on the cliff in Tagus Cove. Two accessible nests were collected and revealed the first records of Philornis downsi in Galapagos Martin nests. The impact of parasitism by P. downsi is unknown but potentially severe. Given the lack of general knowledge about the biology of this species and its apparent low population sizes, further studies are urgently needed.

Tool-use is widespread among animals, but except in primates the development of this behaviour is poorly known. Here, we report on the first experimental study to our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the acquisition of tool-use in a bird species. The woodpecker finch Cactospiza pallida, endemic to the Galápagos Islands, is a famous textbook example of tool-use in animals. This species uses modified twigs or cactus spines to pry arthropods out of tree holes. Using nestlings and adult birds from the field, we tested experimentally whether woodpecker finches learn tool-use socially. We show that social learning is not essential for the development of tool-use: all juveniles developed tool-use regardless of whether or not they had a tool-using model. However, we found that not all adult woodpecker finches used tools in our experiments. These non-tool-using individuals also did not learn this task by observing tool-using conspecifics. Our results suggest that tool-use behaviour depends on a very specific learning disposition that involves trial-and-error learning during a sensitive phase early in ontogeny.

Understanding the mechanisms underlying speciation remains a challenge in evolutionary biology. The adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches is a prime example of species formation, and their study has revealed many important insights into evolutionary processes. Here, we report striking differences in mating signals (songs), morphology and genetics between the two remnant populations of Darwin's mangrove finch Camarhynchus heliobates, one of the rarest species in the world. We also show that territorial males exhibited strong discrimination of sexual signals by locality: in response to foreign songs, males responded weaker than to songs from their own population. Female responses were infrequent and weak but gave approximately similar results. Our findings not only suggest speciation in the mangrove finch, thereby providing strong support for the central role of sexual signals during speciation, but they have also implications for the conservation of this iconic bird. If speciation is complete, the eastern species will face imminent extinction, because it has a population size of only 5-10 individuals.