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Access to veterinary drugs for livestock has become a major issue over the last decade. Analysis has tended to focus on the demand for these products, while studies looking at the drivers behind their use generally focus on farmer behavior and interactions between veterinarians and farmers. However, the use of drugs also depends on structural factors that determine the functioning of the drug supply chain and farmers' access to the drugs. This article presents an overview of the factors that limit access to veterinary drugs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) as well as the international policy tools and arrangements that claim to improve it. We have conducted a scoping review of the scientific and grey literature as well as the publicly-available data from both the animal health industry and international organizations. We aimed to gather information on the veterinary drugs market in SSA as well as on the international norms, recommendations, guidelines, and initiatives that impact SSA farmers' access to these drugs. We highlight numerous barriers to veterinary drug access in SSA. The SSA market is highly dependent on imports, yet the region attracts little attention from the international companies capable of exporting to it. It suffers from a high level of fragmentation and weak distribution infrastructures and services, and is driven by the multiplication of private non-professional actors playing a growing role in the veterinary drug supply chain. The distribution system is increasingly dualized, with on the one hand the public sector (supported by development organizations) supplying small scale farmers in rural areas, but with limited and irregular means; and on the other side a private sector largely unregulated which supplies commercial and industrial farming systems. Different innovations have been developed at the international and regional levels to try to reduce barriers, such as homogenizing national legislations, donations, and vaccine banks. Alongside decades-old inter-state cooperation, many new forms of public-private partnerships and other hybrid forums continue to emerge, signaling the private sector's increasing influence in global governance. Policies on animal health would be bolstered by a better understanding of the drivers behind and the components of access to veterinary drugs in different regional and national contexts. Inequalities in drug access need to be addressed and a market-driven approach adopted in order to strengthen our understanding of what determines veterinary drug use at the farm level. Policies should balance the interests of the various stakeholders, being careful not to reinforce bias toward certain diseases deemed \"interesting\" and neglect others that could prove to be highly important for veterinary public health.

The history, definition and objectives of animal health policies are reviewed in this article. These policies combine numerous potentially contradictory objectives in public health, agricultural economics, international trade and animal welfare, while recently also being a component of the One Health triptych. This latter objective emerged as a consequence of the drive of the international community (FAO, WHO and OIE [World Organisation for Animal Health]) to achieve global health. Animal health is becoming both a biosecurity issue and a global public good. This reframing helps mobilize the international community according to the scale of the threat and the general interest. The case of avian influenza in Vietnam showcases the need to ensure that this reframing does not marginalize local issues and knowledge. Animal health is a political target that needs to be denaturalized. Social sciences can highlight the competing interests and values at stake in the animal health concept, while nurturing the debate on how it could help build a safer world and enhance solidarity between States, as well as between humans and animals.

Although currently available data indicate that Africa has the lowest usage of antimicrobials in animals in the world (adjusted by animal biomass), data show a high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens isolated from animals and animal products. Apart from the lack of solid data on antimicrobial use in many countries in Africa, different hypotheses could explain this situation. Qualitative interviews of farmers show a lack of knowledge and uninformed use of antimicrobials. Considering the development of animal farming to meet an increasing demand for proteins, this deficiency represents a serious public health issue. We advocate for policies that consider the specific challenges faced by family farmers in Africa, to simultaneously improve access to veterinary drugs while strengthening the regulation of their use. We propose a global approach targeting the agri-food system, offering innovative social and technical interventions on antimicrobial usage, adapted to family farmers.

Our paper highlights the limitations of the framework used by many conservation‐focused programmes that incorporate food security objectives. This framework encourages the substitution of wild proteins with domestic proteins by promoting animal farming in communities located near conservation areas. We argue that this ‘protein substitution’ objective disregards key assumptions from the field of socio‐anthropology and food studies: Meat is more than just a source of protein; food security is more than a nutritional issue; food consumption is not straightforwardly linked to food production; and consumers need to be involved in governing their food system. To address these gaps, we analysed the food system of the BaTonga people living near a conservation area in Zimbabwe, with a particular focus on the role of wild meat. Our findings demonstrate that BaTonga food insecurity is intricately linked to a local historical context which is characterized by environmental injustice and limited access to essential resources from the local ecosystem, including wildlife. Therefore, reducing BaTonga food insecurity to a protein gap is a form of social violence. Despite its low consumption, the motivations behind the BaTonga's consumption of wild meat are diverse, including nutritional, but also health, hedonic, social, cultural and economic reasons. Furthermore, wild meat served as a safety net during the COVID‐19 pandemic. This demonstrates the multiple functions of wild meat in the local food system as well as its role in nutrition. Although domestic animals are present in most households, their contribution to the local meat supply is limited; they serve as productive assets, are bartered for basic foodstuffs, or are sold outside the area to better‐off consumers. To integrate food security objectives, conservation‐focused programmes must adapt their approach. More space must be given to food studies within their own right. Wild meat consumption must be treated as a component of complex and dynamic food systems rather than a mere source of protein. Food sovereignty and consumer agency must be recognized as legitimate objectives. This requires recognizing that wild meat is more than just protein, and that wild meat consumers are not just empty stomachs. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. De nombreux programmes de conservation de la biodiversité entendent intégrer des objectifs de développement durable à travers des actions en faveur de la sécurité alimentaire des populations vivant en bordure des zones protégées. Dans la majorité des cas, ces actions visent à promouvoir des activités d'élevage afin de substituer la consommation de « protéines sauvages » par celle de « protéines domestiques ». Cependant cet objectif de substitution ne tient pas compte des apports de la socio‐anthropologie de l'alimentation: la viande est plus qu'une simple source de protéines; la sécurité alimentaire est plus qu'un problème nutritionnel; le lien entre production alimentaire et consommation alimentaire n'est pas direct; et enfin, les consommateurs sont des agents de leur système alimentaire. Sur la base de ces apports, nous avons étudié la place de la viande sauvage dans le système alimentaire de la communauté BaTonga vivant à proximité d'une zone de conservation au Zimbabwe. Les résultats de notre étude montrent que l'insécurité alimentaire des BaTonga est le produit d'un processus historique, marqué par une restriction continue de leur accès aux ressources de l'écosystème local pourtant à la base de leur alimentation. Par conséquent, réduire l'insécurité alimentaire des BaTonga à un déficit protéique est une façon d'ignorer ce processus d'injustice environnementale et de reproduire une forme de violence sociale. Malgré une faible consommation, les motivations des BaTonga pour consommer de la viande sauvage sont nombreuses et reflètent la multifonctionnalité de cette consommation: ces fonctions sont nutritionnelles et sanitaires, mais aussi hédoniques, sociales, culturelles et économiques. En outre, l'enquête conduite pendant la pandémie de COVID‐19 a montré que la viande sauvage, ainsi que d'autres ressources sauvages (fruits, légumes, etc.), ont joué un rôle de filet de sécurité pour les populations BaTonga, grâce aux savoirs qu'elles en avaient conservé. Bien que la plupart des ménages BaTonga élèvent des animaux, ces derniers contribuent peu à la consommation locale de viande: ils fournissent principalement des services (épargne, travail, fumure pour les bovins), sont échangés contre des denrées alimentaires de base, ou vendus à l'extérieur de la zone à des consommateurs plus aisés. Ce résultat met en évidence l'écart qui existe entre disponibilité et accessibilité alimentaires. Pour intégrer les objectifs de sécurité alimentaire, les programmes de conservation doivent donc adapter leurs approches. Il leur faut accorder plus de place aux études sur l'alimentation en tant que telle. En particulier, la consommation de viande sauvage doit être abordée comme la composante de systèmes alimentaires complexes et dynamiques; l'objectif de souveraineté alimentaire et l'agentivité des consommateurs doivent être pris en compte. Il s'agit donc de reconnaître que la viande sauvage est plus qu'une simple source de protéines et que les consommateurs de viande sauvage sont bien plus que des estomacs vides. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

[...]both struggle to properly define the boundaries of their paradigms despite their apparent similarities regarding principles and objectives. There are concerns about the risk of instrumentalisation of the socio-ecological aspects (conservation, ecosystemic approaches) by the medical sector. [...]the health sector could use the 'politically correct' discourse of One Health but without in effect changing its practices of leadership and funding opportunities regarding environment and ecosystem approaches to health. Some activities aim at exploring the links between the restoration of forest ecosystem functions (e.g. through the re-introduction of key-stone species) including a hypothetised improved ecosystem resilience with health indicators for both animal and human populations.\\n Acknowledgments This work was conducted within the framework of the Research Platform \"Production and Conservation in Partnership\", RP-PCP; the Research Network \"Management of Emerging Risks in Southeast Asia\", GREASE; and the Platform in partnership for research and training \"Forests and Biodiversity in Madagascar\", F&B. References 1.

According to Beck's ‘World at Risk’ theory, global risks push nations towards a cosmopolitisation of their health policy and open opportunities for a democratic turn. This article provides an empirical analysis of Beck's theory, based on the experience of Vietnamese authorities from 2003 to 2007 in managing the emerging avian flu virus. It shows how Vietnam's framing of avian flu has shifted, under the pressure from international organisations and the US administration, from an epizootic and zoonotic risk (or a classic risk) to a pandemic threat (or a late modern risk). Vietnam's response was part of its overall strategy to join the World Trade Organization and it was limited by Vietnam's defence of its sovereignty. This strategy has been successful for Vietnam but has limited the possibility of cosmopolitan and democratic transformations. The case study highlights the constructed dimension of risks of late modernity and their possible instrumentalisation: it minimises the role of a community of fear relative to a community of trade.

The significant increase in antibiotics resistance (AMR) has become a major issue over the last decade. Current international focus falls largely on reducing the excessive use and misuse of antibiotics in animal farming. The drivers of this consumption are generally studied through farmers' behavior and veterinary-farmers interactions. However, drug use also results from structural factors that determine the functioning of the drugs market chain and farmers' access to drugs. This article presents an overview of the limits to access to veterinary drugs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as well as the international policy tools and setups that claim to improve it. We analyze the scientific and grey literature, the publicly available data of the veterinary pharmaceutical industry and international organizations in order to gather information on the veterinary drugs markets in SSA, and on the norms, recommendations, guidelines and initiatives at international level that impact the functioning of the markets chains in SSA. We highlight numerous roadblocks to access to veterinary medicines in SSA. The African market is highly dependent on imports. It suffers from a high level of fragmentation, weak distribution infrastructures and services and is driven by the multiplication of private non- professional actors playing a growing role in the veterinary drug chains. The distribution system is increasingly dualized, with on the one hand the public sector (supported by development organizations) supplying small scale farmers in rural areas, but with limited and irregular means; and on the other side a private sector largely unregulated which supplies commercial and industrial farming systems. Different innovations have been developed at the international level to lower these barriers, such as homogenization of national legislations, donations and vaccine banks. Along decades-old inter-state cooperation, many new forms of Public-Private partnerships and hybrid forums are emerging, s

Figuie reviews Virulent Zones: Animal Disease and Global Health at China's Pandemic Epicenter by Lyle Fearnley.