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In the second year of life, the brain undergoes rapid maturation, allowing young children to progress from relying mainly on their caregiver for comfort during distress to acquiring cognitive, motor, and emotional skills necessary for self-regulation of distress. This longitudinal, naturalistic observational study examined developmental patterns in pain-related distress responding during routine immunizations across the second year of life via cardiac and behavioural measures of pain-related distress. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) and Face, Legs, Activity, Crying, and Consolability (FLACC) scores were collected at 4 epochs (Baseline, Needle, 1 min post-needle, and 2 min post-needle) during toddlers’ 12-, 18-, and 24-month vaccination visits ( N  = 223). No significant developmental changes in RSA were found. FLACC was most variable at 12 months. FLACC responding to pain significantly diminished with age such that toddler’s reactivity decreased, and regulatory rate exhibited a notable increase from 12 to 18 months. In 18- and 24-month-olds, pain behaviours returned to baseline levels by the third minute after vaccination, whereas in 12-month-olds, they remained elevated. These findings suggest that the second year of life marks a period of substantial development in distress regulation that mainly occurs between 12 and 18 months. With increasing age, toddlers’ initial response to an acute pain stimulus decreases while their capacity for regulation increases.

Critics have long pointed to the importance of effect sizes for remedying the problems that a mechanistic focus on null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) has caused for psychological science. Following a brief discussion of the meaning of the term effect size, we describe how the same issues stemming from an overreliance on NHST (i.e., publication bias, p-hacking, and researcher degrees of freedom) that led to a \"replication crisis\" have also impacted effect size accuracy and interpretation. Next, we describe the central role that effect sizes play in efforts to overcome the replication crisis and revitalize psychology as a cumulative science. Specifically, we emphasize the importance of effect size interpretation and the place of effect sizes in sample size planning, replication, and meta-analysis. We conclude that focusing on effect sizes can serve a cumulative psychological science to the extent that they serve statistical thinking, which values contextualization based on researcher expertise over mechanical statistical rituals. Les critiques ont longtemps souligné l'importance de la taille de l'effet pour remédier aux problèmes qu'une focalisation mécaniste sur les tests de signification de l'hypothèse nulle (NHST) a entraînés pour la science psychologique. Après une brève discussion sur la signification du terme taille de l'effet, nous décrivons comment les mêmes problèmes découlant d'une dépendance excessive aux NHST (p. ex., les biais de publication, le p-hacking, et les degrés de liberté des chercheurs) qui ont mené à une « crise de réplication » ont également eu une incidence sur l'exactitude et l'interprétation de la taille de l'effet. Ensuite, nous décrivons le rôle central que joue la taille de l'effet dans les efforts visant à surmonter la crise de réplication et à revitaliser la psychologie comme science cumulative. Plus précisément, nous mettons l'accent sur l'importance de l'interprétation de la taille de l'effet et de la place de la taille de l'effet dans la planification, la réplication et la méta-analyse de la taille de l'échantillon. Nous en concluons que le fait de se concentrer sur la taille des effets peut servir à la science psychologique cumulative dans la mesure où ces derniers servent la pensée statistique, qui valorise la contextualisation fondée sur l'expertise de chercheurs en matière de rituels statistiques mécaniques. Public Significance Statement The reliability of psychological research has been called into question because a range of prominent findings have not been replicated by follow-up studies, leading to a so-called replication crisis. Certain practices regarding data analysis and interpretation of results, centered around null-hypothesis significance testing, are responsible for this situation. The current article discusses how an increased focus on effect size interpretation can help psychology progress as a cumulative science to the extent that such interpretation values contextualization based on researcher expertise over mechanical statistical routine.

There are many high-quality resources available which describe best practices in the implementation of both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Yet, partly owing to the complexity of these procedures, confusion persists among psychologists with respect to the implementation of EFA and CFA. Primary among these misunderstandings is the very mathematical distinction between EFA and CFA. The current paper uses a brief example to illustrate the difference between the statistical models underlying EFA and CFA, both of which are particular instantiations of the more general common factor model. Next, important considerations for the implementation of EFA and CFA discussed in this paper include the need to account for the categorical nature of item-level observed variables in factor analyses, the use of factor analysis in studies of the psychometric properties of new tests or questionnaires and previously developed tests, decisions about whether to use EFA or CFA in these contexts, and the importance of replication of factor analytic models in the ongoing pursuit of validation. De nombreuses ressources de haute qualité existent pour décrire les meilleures pratiques en matière de mise en œuvre de l'analyse factorielle exploratoire (AFE) et de l'analyse factorielle confirmatoire (AFC). Or, en partie dû à la complexité de ces procédures, une certaine confusion persiste entre les psychologues quant à la mise en œuvre de l'AFE et de l'AFC. L'une des principales sources de ces malentendus réside dans la distinction mathématique entre l'AFE et l'AFC. Le présent article utilise un bref exemple pour illustrer la différence entre les modèles statistiques sous-jacents à l'AFE et l'AFC, lesquels sont tous deux des instanciations particulières du modèle factoriel plus général. Ensuite, d'importantes considérations relatives à la mise en œuvre de l'AFE et de l'AFC, abordées dans le présent article, incluent la nécessité de tenir compte de la nature catégorique de variables observées au niveau des items dans les analyses factorielles, l'utilisation de l'analyse factorielle dans l'étude de propriétés psychométriques de nouveaux tests ou questionnaires et de tests élaborés dans le passé, des décisions quant à la procédure la plus appropriée - soit l'AFE ou l'AFC - dans ces contextes et l'importance de la reproduction de modèles d'analyse factorielle dans la poursuite de la validation en cours.

Purpose: The Sensitivity to Pain Traumatization Scale (SPTS-12) was developed to assess the propensity to develop a traumatic stress response to pain. The SPTS-12 is a reliable and valid scale with a one-factor structure. The aim of the present study is to further examine the psychometric properties of the SPTS-12 by evaluating its criterion validity and how scores change over time in a sample of postsurgical patients at the Toronto General Hospital Transitional Pain Service. Participants and Methods: 361 adults (55% male; [M.sub.age] = 50.6 years, [SD.sub.age] = 14.3) completed questionnaires assessing symptoms of pain, anxiety, depression, and trauma at multiple visits to the Transitional Pain Service after surgery. Latent-class growth mixture modeling defined prototypical longitudinal patterns (latent trajectories) of SPTS-12 scores up to two years after surgery. One-way ANOVAs examined how trajectory classes differed over time on measures of daily opioid use (mg morphine equivalents (MME)), average pain intensity, pain interference, and depressive symptoms. Results: The final model consisted of five SPTS-12 trajectory groups; two characterized by a flat and unchanging pattern and three showing a small but statistically significant decrease over time. Analysis of pain-related outcomes predicted by SPTS-12 trajectories provided evidence of criterion validity of the SPTS-12. SPTS-12 trajectories did not significantly differ on daily MME at any time. Average pain, pain interference, and depression scores significantly differed across SPTS-12 trajectory groups at two or more postsurgical visits (all p < 0.05). Conclusion: The SPTS-12 shows fairly stable patterns and predicts important pain-related and psychosocial outcomes over time. Two SPTS-12 trajectories (#2 and #5) with high scores, comprising ~28% of the total sample, are associated with problematic outcomes on several pain and psychosocial measures. Targeting patients with high SPTS-12 scores for presurgical psychological treatment may prove beneficial in reducing the impact of CPSP. Keywords: chronic pain, chronic postsurgical pain, trauma, psychology, scale validation, psychosocial factors, trajectory

The goal of the current study was to review and meta-analyze the literature on relationships between child distress expression behaviors (e.g., cry) and three clusters of child distress regulation behaviors (disengagement of attention, parent-focused behaviors, and self-soothing) in the first three years of life. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020157505). Unique abstracts were identified through Medline, Embase, and PsycINFO (n = 13,239), and 295 studies were selected for full-text review. Studies were included if they provided data from infants or toddlers in a distress task, had distinct behavioral measures of distress expression and one of the three distress regulation clusters, and assessed the concurrent association between them. Thirty-one studies were included in the meta-analysis and rated on quality. Nine separate meta-analyses were conducted, stratified by child age (first, second, and third year) and regulation behavior clusters (disengagement of attention, parent-focused, and self-soothing). The weighted mean correlations for disengagement of attention behaviors were −0.28 (year 1), −0.44 (year 2), and −0.30 (year 3). For parent-focused behaviors, the weighted mean effects were 0.00 (year 1), 0.20 (year 2), and 0.11 (year 3). Finally, the weighted mean effects for self-soothing behaviors were −0.23 (year 1), 0.25 (year 2), and −0.10 (year 3). The second year of life showed the strongest relationships, although heterogeneity of effects was substantial across the analyses. Limitations include only analyzing concurrent relationships and lack of naturalistic distress paradigms in the literature.

Executive function task (EF) deficits are hypothesized to underlie difficulties with self-regulation. However, tasks assessing EF impairments have only been weakly correlated with rating scales that index self-regulation difficulties. A community sample of children and youth aged between 8 and 20 years old were assessed longitudinally. Growth curve analyses and correlations were conducted to better understand how these two types of measures relate to one another across development, as well as the impact of age-related variance. EF was assessed using the Stroop Task and Trail Making test and behavioral ratings of self-regulation were captured using the SWAN scale. EF task performance improved steeply until age 14–15, whereas the SWAN Scale showed small age-related decreases. EF task performance was moderately correlated with age among 8–13-year-olds and to a lesser extent among 14–20-year-olds. SWAN scores were not significantly related to age in either group. Correlations were similar in an ADHD “at-risk” subgroup. EF task performance and parent ratings of attention regulation have different developmental trajectories, which may partly explain why correlations are low to modest in these samples. In particular, age-related variance is an important methodological consideration with significant implications for the assessment of self-regulation in children and youth with ADHD.

Parent and family characteristics are important considerations in the etiology and treatment of childhood disruptive behavior problems. The current study investigated the psychometric properties of the General Functioning (GF) scale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD) in families referred for treatment of childhood disruptive behavior difficulties. Participants included 459 families with a child between the ages of 6 and 12 years who were referred for treatment of disruptive behavior. Prior to treatment, mothers and/or fathers completed questionnaires assessing family functioning, child psychopathology and associated functional impairment, parenting behavior, and parent psychopathology. The factor structure, internal consistency, and concurrent validity of three versions of the FAD GF scale were examined, including a one-factor, 12-item model, a one-factor, 6-item model, and a 3-factor, 12-item model. All three models had adequate fit based on confirmatory factor analysis. Across models, family dysfunction scores had small positive associations with child psychopathology, functional impairment, inconsistent parenting behaviors, and parents’ history of internalizing disorders, and small negative associations with positive parenting behaviors, providing evidence for the concurrent validity of the scale. The FAD GF scale provides a valid and reliable measure of family dysfunction in families experiencing disruptive child behavior. Researchers and clinicians may consider using an abbreviated 6-item version of the scale or a three-domain version of the scale as valid alternatives to the standard 12-item administration and scoring.

BACKGROUND: Research investigating how observers empathize or form estimations of an individual experiencing pain suggests that both characteristics of the observer (‘top down’) and characteristics of the individual in pain (‘bottom up’) are influential. However, experts have opined that infant behaviour should serve as a crucial determinant of infant pain judgment due to their inability to self‐report. OBJECTIVE: To predict parents’ immunization pain ratings using archival data. It was hypothesized that infant behaviour (‘bottom up’) and parental emotional availability (‘top down’) would directly predict the most variance in parent pain ratings. METHODS: Healthy infants were naturalistically observed during their two‐, four‐, six‐ and/or 12‐month immunization appointments. Cross‐sectional latent growth curve models in a structural equation model context were conducted at each age (n=469 to n=579) to examine direct and indirect predictors of parental ratings of their infant’s pain. RESULTS: At each age, each model suggested that moderate amounts of variance in parent pain report were accounted for by models that included infant pain behaviours (R 2 =0.18 to 0.36). Moreover, notable differences were found for older versus younger infants with regard to parental emotional availability, infant sex, caregiver age and amount of variance explained by infant variables. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study suggest that parent pain ratings are not predominantly predicted by infant behaviours, especially before four months of age. Current results suggest that recognizing infant pain behaviours during painful events may be an important area of parent education, especially for parents of very young infants. Further work is needed to determine other factors that predict parent judgments of infant pain.

BackgroundThe substance use risk profile scale (SURPS) was developed to assess four personality risk factors: hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking. Psychometric validation work—mainly with adolescents and emerging adults—has struggled to support a four-factor simple structure without post-hoc modifications. This study aimed to clarify the factor structure of the SURPS using the most appropriate analytic framework in a sample of adults and investigate its ability to predict various alcohol-related outcomes and motives.MethodsAdult participants (N = 400; Mage = 32.05, 55% male) completed the SURPS and measures capturing drinking habits and motives. Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) approaches were used to analyze the dimensionality of the SURPS items, with measurement invariance examined across gender and age. Predictive validity was analyzed using multiple linear regression with observed subscale scores.ResultsFollowing poor fit of a traditional CFA model with four correlated factors, a four-factor ESEM model (allowing for non-zero item cross-loadings) provided a much stronger fit to the SURPS data. This ESEM model also had scalar invariance across age and gender. Observed subscale scores predicted hypothesized drinking motives. Sensation seeking uniquely predicted hazardous alcohol use while hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, and sensation seeking uniquely predicted alcohol-related problems.ConclusionSURPS model fit was substantially better when using a contemporary ESEM approach. This approach tackles the challenge of CFA being too constraining when faced with the reality of item responses being influenced by correlated clinical constructs.

Drinking water is a major source of dietary fluoride intake in communities with water fluoridation. We examined the association between urinary fluoride adjusted for specific gravity (UFSG) and tap water fluoride levels, by age and sex, among individuals living in Canada. Participants included 1629 individuals aged 3 to 79 years from Cycle 3 (2012–2013) of the Canadian Health Measures Survey. We used multiple linear regression to estimate unique associations of tap water fluoride levels, age, sex, ethnicity, body mass index (BMI), use of fluoride-containing dental products, smoking in the home, and tea consumption with UFSG. UFSG concentration was significantly higher among participants who received fluoridated drinking water (mean = 1.06 mg/L, standard deviation = 0.83) than among those who did not (M = 0.58 mg/L, SD = 0.47), p < 0.01. UFSG increased over adulthood (ages 19 to 79). Higher UFSG concentration was associated with being female, tea drinking, and smoking in the home. In conclusion, community water fluoridation is a major source of contemporary fluoride exposure for Canadians. Lifestyle factors including tea consumption, as well as demographic variables such as age and sex, also predict urinary fluoride level, and are therefore important factors when interpreting population-based fluoride biomonitoring data.