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The effects of historical land use on tropical forest must be examined to understand present forest characteristics and to plan conservation strategies. We compared the effects of past land use, topography, soil type, and other environmental variables on tree species composition in a subtropical wet forest in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. The study involved stems ≥10 cm diameter measured at 130 cm above the ground, within the 16-ha Luquillo Forest Dynamics Plot (LFDP), and represents the forest at the time Hurricane Hugo struck in 1989. Topography in the plot is rugged, and soils are variable. Historical documents and local residents described past land uses such as clear-felling and selective logging followed by farming, fruit and coffee production, and timber stand improvement in the forest area that now includes the LFDP. These uses ceased 40-60 yr before the study, but their impacts could be differentiated by percent canopy cover seen in aerial photographs from 1936. Using these photographs, we defined four historic cover classes within the LFDP. These ranged from cover class 1, the least tree-covered area in 1936, to cover class 4, with the least intensive historic land use (selective logging and timber stand improvement). In 1989, cover class 1 had the lowest stem density and proportion of large stems, whereas cover class 4 had the highest basal area, species richness, and number of rare and endemic species. Ordination of tree species composition (89 species, 13 167 stems) produced arrays that primarily corresponded to the four cover classes (i.e., historic land uses). The ordination arrays corresponded secondarily to soil characteristics and topography. Natural disturbances (hurricanes, landslides, and local treefalls) affected tree composition, but these effects did not correlate with the major patterns of species distributions on the plot. Thus, it appears that forest development and natural disturbance have not masked the effects of historical land use in this tropical forest, and that past land use was the major influence on the patterns of tree composition in the plot in 1989. The least disturbed stand harbors more rare and endemic species, and such stands should be protected.

Hurricanes represent an important natural disturbance process to tropical and temperate forests in many coastal areas of the world. The complex patterns of damage created in forests by hurricane winds result from the interaction of meteorological, physiographic, and biotic factors on a range of spatial scales. To improve our understanding of these factors and of the role of catastrophic hurricane wind as a disturbance process, we take an integrative approach. A simple meteorological model (HURRECON) utilizes meteorological data to reconstruct wind conditions at specific sites and regional gradients in wind speed and direction during a hurricane. A simple topographic exposure model (EXPOS) utilizes wind direction predicted by HURRECON and a digital elevation map to estimate landscape—level exposure to the strongest winds. Actual damage to forest stands is assessed through analysis of remotely sensed, historical, and field data. These techniques were used to evaluate the characteristics and impacts of two important hurricanes: Hurricane Hugo (1989) in Puerto Rico and the 1938 New England Hurricane, storms of comparable magnitude in regions that differ greatly in climate, vegetation, physiography, and disturbance regimes. In both cases patterns of damage on a regional scale were found to agree with the predicted distribution of peak wind gust velocities. On a landscape there was also good agreement between patterns of forest damage and predicted exposure in the Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico and the town of Petersham, Massachusetts. At the Harvard and Pisgah Forests in central New England the average orientation of wind—thrown trees was very close to the predicted peak wind direction, while at Luquillo there was also good agreement, with some apparent modification of wind direction by the mountainous terrain. At Harvard Forest there was evidence that trees more susceptible to windthrow were felled earlier in the storm. This approach may be used to study the effects of topography on wind direction and the relation of forest damage to wind speed and duration; to establish broad—scale gradients of hurricane frequency, intensity, and wind direction for particular regions; and to determine landscape—level exposure to long—term hurricane disturbance at particular sites.

Hurricanes represent an important natural disturbance process to tropical and temperate forests in many coastal areas of the world. The complex patterns of damage created in forests by hurricane winds result from the interaction of meteorological, physiographic, and biotic factors on a range of spatial scales. To improve our understanding of these factors and of the role of catastrophic hurricane wind as a disturbance process, we take an integrative approach. A simple meteorological model (HURRECON) utilizes meteorological data to reconstruct wind conditions at specific sites and regional gradients in wind speed and direction during a hurricane. A simple topographic exposure model (EXPOS) utilizes wind direction predicted by HURRECON and a digital elevation map to estimate landscape-level exposure to the strongest winds. Actual damage to forest stands is assessed through analysis of remotely sensed, historical, and field data. These techniques were used to evaluate the characteristics and impacts of two important hurricanes: Hurricane Hugo (1989) in Puerto Rico and the 1938 New England Hurricane, storms of comparable magnitude in regions that differ greatly in climate, vegetation, physiography, and disturbance regimes. In both cases patterns of damage on a regional scale were found to agree with the predicted distribution of peak wind gust velocities. On a landscape there was also good agreement between patterns of forest damage and predicted exposure in the Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico and the town of Petersham, Massachusetts. At the Harvard and Pisgah Forests in central New England the average orientation of wind-thrown trees was very close to the predicted peak wind direction, while at Luquillo there was also good agreement, with some apparent modification of wind direction by the mountainous terrain. At Harvard Forest there was evidence that trees more susceptible to windthrow were felled earlier in the storm. This approach may be used to study the effects of topography on wind direction and the relation of forest damage to wind speed and duration; to establish broad-scale gradients of hurricane frequency, intensity, and wind direction for particular regions; and to determine landscape-level exposure to long-term hurricane disturbance at particular sites.

The stallion made me receptive to the balance of the horse, the need to be aware of 'feeling' rather than 'doing/ After meeting that rider and horse, I spent a lot of time going to watch Portuguese horses and riders, to a picture in my head of what I was trying to achieve. [...] my life has been a quest balance.

Sue began coaching Smith's IHSA team in 1981 and terms IHSA's growth \"mind-boggling\" with the formerly college-hosted IHSA National Championship Show now requiring venues on the scale of Atianta's Olympic facilities, the Kentucky Horse Park and the Los Angeles Equestrian Center.

Add one classically-trained Olympic multi-medalist and US dressage coach, one tireless translator and a veterinarian who specializes in the relationship between equine form and function- Blend with 500 auditors and a great venue, and you have the 2006 New England Dressage Association Fall Weekend Symposium with Klaus Balkenhol at the University of Massachusetts Amherst's Hadley Farm. Lessons began with the green Calista LBA ridden by Tammy Paparella and ended with Pierre St. Jacques' Grand Prix horse Lucky Tiger, winner of team gold in the 2003 Pan American Games. In response to an auditor s question about hand position, Klaus said, Unfortunately, if the horse is behind the vertical, what the rider often tries to do is pick up the hands.

Between those ears and my hands, sunlight gleams on a strong white neck, arched perfectly to the right and flexed at the poll. 1 open and close my fingers a fraction of an inch and feel the gentle movement of the horse's jaw answer through the double reins. In fact, since sustaining spinal injuries in a car accident in 2004, I had been limited in both ability and opportunity to ride. After years of studying Sylvia Loch's books and videos, I knew what to expect from her: sound classical principles applied for the good of the horse, in terms a rider at any level can understand.

Fluet shares Ingrid Klimke's cavalletti, a schooling program for conditioning horses. Among other things, horses need to be warmed up properly before asking him to go over the cavalletti, and thoroughly cooled down and relaxed afterward, in this sense, cavalletti works therefore becomes the \"middle\" of one's schooling session--and not something to overdo. According to the writings of Ingrid's father, Reiner Klimke, the most likely causes of injuries in cavalletti work are \"careless erection of the cavalletti, the exercise lasting too long, or failure by the rider to give the horse the right aides.\"