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Plasmodium vivax is the predominant malaria parasite in Latin America. Its colonization history in the region is rich and complex, and is still highly debated, especially about its origin(s). Our study employed cutting-edge population genomic techniques to analyze whole genome variation from 620 P . vivax isolates, including 107 newly sequenced samples from West Africa, Middle East, and Latin America. This sampling represents nearly all potential source populations worldwide currently available. Analyses of the genetic structure, diversity, ancestry, coalescent-based inferences, including demographic scenario testing using Approximate Bayesian Computation, have revealed a more complex evolutionary history than previously envisioned. Indeed, our analyses suggest that the current American P . vivax populations predominantly stemmed from a now-extinct European lineage, with the potential contribution also from unsampled populations, most likely of West African origin. We also found evidence that P . vivax arrived in Latin America in multiple waves, initially during early European contact and later through post-colonial human migration waves in the late 19 th -century. This study provides a fresh perspective on P . vivax ’s intricate evolutionary journey and brings insights into the possible contribution of West African P . vivax populations to the colonization history of Latin America.

Background Malaria remains a main parasitic disease of humans. Although the largest number of cases is reported in the African region, there are still endemic foci in the Americas. Central America reported 36,000 malaria cases in 2020, which represents 5.5% of cases in the Americas and 0.015% of cases globally. Most malaria infections in Central America are reported in La Moskitia, shared by Honduras and Nicaragua. In the Honduran Moskitia, less than 800 cases were registered in 2020, considering it an area of low endemicity. In low endemicity settings, the number of submicroscopic and asymptomatic infections tends to increase, leaving many cases undetected and untreated. These reservoirs challenge national malaria elimination programmes. This study aimed to assess the diagnostic performance of Light Microscopy (LM), a nested PCR test and a photoinduced electron transfer polymerase chain reaction (PET-PCR) in a population of febrile patients from La Moskitia. Methods A total of 309 febrile participants were recruited using a passive surveillance approach at the Puerto Lempira hospital. Blood samples were analysed by LM, nested PCR, and PET-PCR. Diagnostic performance including sensitivity, specificity, negative and positive predictive values, kappa index, accuracy, and ROC analysis was evaluated. The parasitaemia of the positive samples was quantified by both LM and PET-PCR. Results The overall prevalence of malaria was 19.1% by LM, 27.8% by nPCR, and 31.1% by PET-PCR. The sensitivity of LM was 67.4% compared to nPCR, and the sensitivity of LM and nPCR was 59.6% and 80.8%, respectively, compared to PET-PCR. LM showed a kappa index of 0.67, with a moderate level of agreement. Forty positive cases by PET-PCR were not detected by LM. Conclusions This study demonstrated that LM is unable to detect parasitaemia at low levels and that there is a high degree of submicroscopic infections in the Honduran Moskitia.

Background Vector populations are a key target for malaria control and elimination. In Honduras, there are at least 12 reported anopheline species, however, the definitive number of species remains uncertain. Due to the inherent limitations of morphological identification of Anopheles species, molecular approaches have been developed to provide accurate identification and robust surveillance of local malaria vectors. The aim of this study was to design and assess three PCR–RFLP assays to identify anopheline species known to presently occur in Honduras. Methods Mosquitoes captured between 2018 and 2022 in seven malaria-endemic and non-endemic departments in Honduras were analysed. The ITS2 ribosomal region and three restriction enzyme-based assays were evaluated in silico and experimentally. Results A total of 132 sequences from 12 anopheline species were analysed. The ITS2 marker showed length polymorphisms that generated products between 388 and 592 bp and no relevant intraspecies polymorphisms were found. Furthermore, the three PCR–RFLP assays were able to differentiate 11 species with sufficient precision and resolution. Conclusion The ITS2 region was shown to be a useful molecular marker for identifying local Anopheles species. In addition, the PCR–RFLP assays evaluated here proved to be capable of discriminating most of the anopheline species present in Honduras. These methods provide alternatives to improve entomological surveillance of Anopheles in Honduras and other Mesoamerican countries.

Aedes aegypti is a hematophagous and highly anthropophilic mosquito with a wide distribution, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Ae. aegypti is the main vector of several febrile diseases called arboviruses (dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, and zika viruses), which represent an important public health problem. Populations of this mosquito were nearly eliminated from the Americas in the mid-20th century; however, after the abandonment of control measures, mosquito populations have been recovering territory, have expanded by anthropogenic mechanisms, and have been joined by new populations reintroduced from other continents. The objective of this pilot study was to determine the genetic variability of Aedes aegypti collected in four cities located along the so-called logistics corridor of Honduras, which connects the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean. We studied the sequences of two molecular markers: the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI mtDNA) gene and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2 rDNA) of 40 mosquitoes. Phylogenetic analyzes show two separate clades with a low number of nucleotide differences per site, three haplotypes, and low haplotype diversity. These results suggest a low genetic diversity in the populations of Ae. aegypti in Honduras in relation to that reported in other countries of the Central American isthmus.

(1) Background: Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) have been overlooked on the global health agenda and in the priorities of national systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In 2012, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were created to ensure healthy lives and promoting well-being for all. This roadmap set out to accelerate work to overcome the global impact of NTDs. Almost a decade has passed since NTDs were re-launched as a global priority. Investment in research and development, as well as the production of scientific literature on NTDs, is expected to have increased significantly. (2) Methods: A bibliometric analysis of the scientific production of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) was carried out in relation to 19 endemic NTDs. These data were compared with the scientific production in malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. The database available from Thomson Reuters Web of Science (WoS) was used. In addition, the average annual growth percentage was calculated for each disease. (3) Results: In the last decade, the NTDs with the highest number of publications in the world were dengue and leishmaniasis. The United States was the most prolific country in the world in 15 out of 19 NTDs analyzed. In the LAC region, Brazil was the largest contributor for 16 of the 19 NTDs analyzed. Arboviral diseases showed the highest average annual growth. The number of publications for malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS was considerably higher than for NTDs. The contribution of most LAC countries, especially those considered to be LMICs, is inadequate and does not reflect the relevance of NTDs for the public health of the population. (4) Conclusions: This is the first bibliometric analysis to assess the trend of scientific documents on endemic NTDs in LAC. Our results could be used by decision makers both to strengthen investment policies in research and development in NTDs.

Background Aedes aegypti is the main vector of arboviruses in the Americas. Insecticide use remains the primary method for outbreak control, but prolonged application exerts selective pressure that promotes resistance. This study aimed to assess insecticide resistance and characterize key knockdown resistance ( kdr ) mutations in Ae. aegypti populations from the Central District of Honduras. Methods Larvae were collected from four localities between May and June 2023. Susceptibility to four insecticides was evaluated via bioassays. Frequencies of the F1534C and V1016I kdr alleles and their haplotypes were determined, and sequencing of the vgsc gene was performed for further genotyping. Results A total of 1592 Ae. aegypti females were phenotyped. All populations were resistant to permethrin and malathion, and two were resistant to deltamethrin; all were susceptible to bendiocarb. The 1534C mutant allele was fixed (1.0), and 1016I had an overall frequency of 0.89, with local variation from 0.48 to 1.0. Conclusions Widespread resistance to commonly used insecticides was detected in Ae. aegypti from the Central District. High frequencies of kdr mutations underscore the need for continuous resistance monitoring to guide effective vector control strategies in Honduras. Graphical abstract

Background The global increase in fungal infections and the emergence of antifungal-resistant species, particularly Trichophyton indotineae , have exposed critical gaps in medical mycology training and diagnostic capacity, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Despite their high prevalence, dermatophytoses are underrepresented in health sciences curricula and continuing professional education, contributing to misdiagnosis, delayed treatment, and inappropriate antifungal use. Methods We designed, implemented, and evaluated a multidisciplinary educational workshop entitled “Medical Mycology: Dermatophytoses, New Challenges in the Era of Antifungal Resistance”, conducted in Honduras in September 2025. The 24-hour in-person intervention combined 16 h of theoretical instruction with 8 h of hands-on laboratory training and targeted healthcare professionals and laboratory personnel nationwide. Educational impact was assessed using pre- and post-intervention questionnaires evaluating knowledge on dermatophyte taxonomy, identification methods, epidemiology, and antifungal resistance. Additionally, a structured survey was applied to characterize participants’ institutional diagnostic capacities. Descriptive analyses were performed to compare pre- and post-workshop responses. Results Among the 36 participants who completed both assessments, post-workshop results demonstrated substantial learning gains across all evaluated domains. The largest improvements were observed in recognition of recently revised dermatophyte genera and in understanding the transmission, clinical relevance, and terbinafine resistance mechanisms of T. indotineae . Correct response rates increased to near 100% for most items. The diagnostic capacity survey revealed that diagnostic practices in participating institutions are predominantly based on phenotypic methods, characterized by reliance on direct microscopy and culture, the exclusive use of morphological identification, and the absence of molecular methods, antifungal susceptibility testing, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The workshop also facilitated the development of standardized didactic materials and the establishment of a preliminary national network for future molecular surveillance. Conclusions This experience demonstrates that a structured, evidence-based educational intervention can significantly strengthen knowledge and practical skills in medical mycology. Such initiatives represent a scalable model to improve dermatophyte diagnosis and antifungal resistance awareness in resource-limited settings.

Honduras has historically faced major barriers to building a sustainable health research system, including minimal R&D investment and limited institutional infrastructure. A Canadian-funded initiative (2007-2012) established the first research-oriented MSc program, a non-clinical ethics board, and modern laboratories at the (UNAH). This article examines how health research capacity evolved between 2013 and 2025, highlighting long-term outcomes, enablers, and barriers, and situating these within a regional Central American comparison. The narrative, largely anecdotal, reflects on the experience and impact of biomedical research at UNAH, particularly through the (IIM). Alumni trajectories and institutional transformations are illustrated with concrete examples. Bibliometric analysis contextualizes scientific output, complemented by broader indicators (GDP, R&D investment, tertiary education, PhDs per million) from World Bank sources. More than 30 MSc graduates have strengthened biomedical and public health institutions, with several completing doctoral training abroad and returning to Honduras. Since its formal creation in 2014, the IIM has produced over 170 publications, representing more than 20% of UNAH's health-related output since 2012. Challenges to sustainability include chronic underinvestment (< 0.1% GDP in R&D), rigid bureaucracy, limited career pathways, and brain drain. Enablers have been international partnerships, the academic diaspora, and strong local leadership. The Honduran case illustrates how targeted, multi-level investment in individuals, institutions, and governance can foster long-term research capacity in resource-constrained settings, while underscoring the need for national policies, career structures, private sector engagement, and sustained international collaboration.

Background Anopheles mosquitoes are the vectors of malaria, one of the most important infectious diseases in the tropics. More than 500 Anopheles species have been described worldwide, and more than 30 are considered a public health problem. In Honduras, information on the distribution of Anopheles spp. and its genetic diversity is scarce. This study aimed to describe the distribution and genetic diversity of Anopheles mosquitoes in Honduras. Methods Mosquitoes were captured in 8 locations in 5 malaria endemic departments during 2019. Two collection methods were used. Adult anophelines were captured outdoors using CDC light traps and by aspiration of mosquitoes at rest. Morphological identification was performed using taxonomic keys. Genetic analyses included the sequencing of a partial region of the cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene ( cox 1) and the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2). Results A total of 1320 anophelines were collected and identified through morphological keys. Seven Anopheles species were identified. Anopheles albimanus was the most widespread and abundant species (74.02%). To confirm the morphological identification of the specimens, 175 and 122 sequences were obtained for cox 1 and ITS2, respectively. Both markers confirmed the morphological identification. cox 1 showed a greater nucleotide diversity than ITS2 in all species. High genetic diversity was observed within the populations of An. albimanus while An. darlingi proved to be a highly homogeneous population. Phylogenetic analyses revealed clustering patterns in An. darlingi and An. neivai in relation to specimens from South America. New sequences for An. crucians , An. vestitipennis and An. neivai are reported in this study. Conclusions Here we report the distribution and genetic diversity of Anopheles species in endemic areas of malaria transmission in Honduras. According to our results, both taxonomic and molecular approaches are useful tools in the identification of anopheline mosquitoes. However, both molecular markers differ in their ability to detect intraspecific genetic diversity. These results provide supporting data for a better understanding of the distribution of malaria vectors in Honduras.