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The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Filoviridae Study Group continues to prospectively refine the established nomenclature for taxa included in family Filoviridae in an effort to decrease confusion of genus, species, and virus names and to adhere to amended stipulations of the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN). Recently, the genus names Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus were changed to Orthoebolavirus and Orthomarburgvirus, respectively. Additionally, all established species names in family Filoviridae now adhere to the ICTV-mandated binomial format. Virus names remain unchanged and valid. Here, we outline the revised taxonomy of family Filoviridae as approved by the ICTV in April 2023.

Background Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a high-fatality zoonotic infection. Iraq has experienced a substantial increase in reported CCHF cases since 2021, yet predictors of mortality and the feasibility of existing severity scores in routine care have not been systematically assessed. We aimed to identify demographic, clinical and laboratory predictors of death among confirmed CCHF patients in Iraq and to develop a simplified severity score suitable for bedside use in resource-constrained settings. Methods We analyzed 273 laboratory-confirmed CCHF cases with known outcomes reported to the Iraqi national surveillance system from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024 (273/1,193 confirmed cases with complete standardized forms). Demographic, exposure, clinical, and laboratory variables (including platelet count and cycle threshold [Ct] values) were extracted from harmonized Ministry of Health and Central Public Health Laboratory databases. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression were used to identify mortality predictors. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis compared the discriminative performance (area under the curve, AUC) of newly proposed scores with existing CCHF Severity Scoring Index (SSI) and Swanepoel’s Grading Score (SGS). Results The overall case fatality rate was 12.1% (33/273). Age, sex, occupation, place of residence, and exposure history were not significantly associated with mortality. In univariable analysis, low platelet count (< 20 × 10³/µL), high viral load (Ct ≤ 25), epistaxis, gastrointestinal bleeding, any bleeding, and jaundice were associated with increased odds of death; after false discovery rate correction, epistaxis, gastrointestinal bleeding, any bleeding, and jaundice remained significant. In multivariable analysis, only epistaxis retained an independent association with mortality (adjusted OR 4.70; 95% CI 1.08–20.4). A laboratory-enhanced three-variable score (epistaxis, low platelet count, Ct ≤ 25) achieved an AUC of 0.70, similar to SSI (0.69). A two-variable score (epistaxis + low platelet count) had an AUC of 0.69, and a purely clinical score (epistaxis, any bleeding, jaundice) an AUC of 0.62, close to SGS (0.64). Conclusion Epistaxis and jaundice emerged as pragmatic clinical red-flag indicators of poor outcome, with low platelet count and high viral load supporting risk stratification where available. Very simple, clinically based scores performed comparably to existing complex tools and may facilitate earlier triage and intensified supportive care for high-risk CCHF patients in resource-limited settings.

More than 60% of human infectious diseases are caused by pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals. Zoonotic disease organisms include those that are endemic in human populations or enzootic in animal populations with frequent cross-species transmission to people. Some of these diseases have only emerged recently. Together, these organisms are responsible for a substantial burden of disease, with endemic and enzootic zoonoses causing about a billion cases of illness in people and millions of deaths every year. Emerging zoonoses are a growing threat to global health and have caused hundreds of billions of US dollars of economic damage in the past 20 years. We aimed to review how zoonotic diseases result from natural pathogen ecology, and how other circumstances, such as animal production, extraction of natural resources, and antimicrobial application change the dynamics of disease exposure to human beings. In view of present anthropogenic trends, a more effective approach to zoonotic disease prevention and control will require a broad view of medicine that emphasises evidence-based decision making and integrates ecological and evolutionary principles of animal, human, and environmental factors. This broad view is essential for the successful development of policies and practices that reduce probability of future zoonotic emergence, targeted surveillance and strategic prevention, and engagement of partners outside the medical community to help improve health outcomes and reduce disease threats.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne viral disease widespread in Africa. The primary cycle involves mosquitoes and wild and domestic ruminant hosts. Humans are usually contaminated after contact with infected ruminants. As many environmental, agricultural, epidemiological, and anthropogenic factors are implicated in RVF spread, the multidisciplinary One Health approach was needed to identify the drivers of RVF epidemics in Madagascar. We examined the environmental patterns associated with these epidemics, comparing human and ruminant serological data with environmental and cattle-trade data. In contrast to East Africa, environmental drivers did not trigger the epidemics: They only modulated local Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) transmission in ruminants. Instead, RVFV was introduced through ruminant trade and subsequent movement of cattle between trade hubs caused its long-distance spread within the country. Contact with cattle brought in from infected districts was associated with higher infection risk in slaughterhouse workers. The finding that anthropogenic rather than environmental factors are the main drivers of RVF infection in humans can be used to design better prevention and early detection in the case of RVF resurgence in the region.

Nipah virus causes highly lethal disease, with case-fatality rates ranging from 40% to 100% in recognised outbreaks. No treatments or licensed vaccines are currently available for the prevention and control of Nipah virus infection. In 2019, WHO published an advanced draft of a research and development roadmap for accelerating development of medical countermeasures, including diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines, to enable effective and timely emergency response to Nipah virus outbreaks. This Personal View provides an update to the WHO roadmap by defining current research priorities for development of Nipah virus medical countermeasures, based primarily on literature published in the last 5 years and consensus opinion of 15 subject matter experts with broad experience in development of medical countermeasures for Nipah virus or experience in the epidemiology, ecology, or public health control of outbreaks of Nipah virus. The research priorities are organised into four main sections: cross-cutting issues (for those that apply to more than one category of medical countermeasures), diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines. The strategic goals and milestones identified in each section focus on key achievements that are needed over the next 6 years to ensure that the necessary tools are available for rapid response to future outbreaks of Nipah virus or related henipaviruses.

Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a widely distributed and potentially fatal tick-borne viral disease with no licensed specific treatments or vaccines. In 2019, WHO published an advanced draft of a research and development roadmap for CCHF that prioritised the development and deployment of the medical countermeasures most needed by CCHF-affected countries. This Personal View presents updated CCHF research and development priorities and is the product of broad consultation with a working group of 20 leading experts in 2023–24. The strategic goals, milestones, and timelines have been revised and expanded to reflect scientific advances since 2019, including the identification of antibodies with therapeutic potential and the progression of four vaccine candidates through phase 1 clinical trials. This update emphasises the need for a One Health approach to manage CCHF, from integrated cross-sectoral surveillance to novel interventions that target ticks and their vertebrate hosts to reduce CCHF virus transmission to humans. The overarching vision for rapid diagnostics and specific therapeutics by 2028, followed by options to limit CCHF virus transmission and control disease by 2030, is deliberately ambitious and will only be achieved through coordinated international action from affected countries, funders, scientists, product developers, manufacturers, regulators, national authorities, and policy makers.

In 2016, WHO designated Lassa fever a priority disease for epidemic preparedness as part of the WHO Blueprint for Action to Prevent Epidemics. One aspect of preparedness is to promote development of effective medical countermeasures (ie, diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines) against Lassa fever. Diagnostic testing for Lassa fever has important limitations and key advancements are needed to ensure rapid and accurate diagnosis. Additionally, the only treatment available for Lassa fever is ribavirin, but controversy exists regarding its effectiveness. Finally, no licensed vaccines are available for the prevention and control of Lassa fever. Ongoing epidemiological and behavioural studies are also crucial in providing actionable information for medical countermeasure development, use, and effectiveness in preventing and treating Lassa fever. This Personal View provides current research priorities for development of Lassa fever medical countermeasures based on literature published primarily in the last 5 years and consensus opinion of 20 subject matter experts with broad experience in public health or the development of diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines for Lassa fever. These priorities provide an important framework to ensure that Lassa fever medical countermeasures are developed and readily available for use in endemic and at-risk areas by the end of the decade.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is an acute tick-borne disease with a case fatality rate of up to 40% in humans, posing a significant health threat. This study investigates the 2022–23 CCHF outbreaks in Iraq, the highest recorded to date, and analyzes potential factors at the human–animal–environmental interface. Data from the Iraqi government, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank were used to analyze CCHF trends and affecting factors. This included epidemiological reports, clinical data, tick infestation and seroprevalence studies, and climate data. Descriptive and statistical analyses examined case trends, geographic and demographic characteristics, clinical manifestations, risk factors, seasonal patterns, and influencing factors. A sudden rise in CCHF cases began in southern Iraq in April 2022 and expanded across all governorates, with a shift toward urban areas. Higher incidence was observed among males, aged 25–44, and those involved in slaughtering. The most common clinical manifestation was fever (97%), followed by hemorrhagic symptoms (54%). Bleeding from the gums or mouth and subcutaneous bleeding were more frequent in patients with fatal outcomes. Seasonal patterns showed peaks during spring and fall, correlating with tick activity and potentially exacerbated by climate change. Tick infestation and seroprevalence studies indicated a high prevalence of Hyalomma ticks and CCHF seropositivity among domestic animals in southern Iraq (60%), consistent with the distribution of CCHF human cases. Iraq’s ongoing CCHF outbreak demands multidisciplinary One Health strategies. The Iraqi government has adopted such a control strategy, contributing to regional and global efforts to enhance pandemic preparedness.

Hantaviruses have the potential to cause two different types of diseases in human: hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). HFRS, initially described clinically at the turn of the 20th century, occurs endemically in the Asian and European continents, while HPS, recognized as a clinical entity since 1993, represents the prototype of emerging diseases occurring in the Western hemisphere. Approximately 150,000 to 200,000 cases of HFRS are hospitalized each year world wide, with most of the cases occurring in the developing countries. The case fatality rate of HFRS varies from <1% to 12% depending on the viruses. Although HPS is much smaller in number than HFRS, with approximately 200 HPS cases per year in the Americas, the average case fatality rate is 40%. The reported cases of hantaviral infection is increasing in many countries and new hantavirus strains have been increasingly identified worldwide, which constitutes a public health problem of increasing global concern. Hantaviral infection might be underestimated due to its asymptomatic and non-specific mild infection, and the lack of simple standardized laboratory diagnostics in hospitals, especially in the developing countries. This review summarizes the current knowledge on virology, epidemiology, clinical manifestation, laboratory diagnostics, treatment and prevention of hantaviruses and hantaviral infections.

El Niño/Southern Oscillation related climate anomalies were analyzed by using a combination of satellite measurements of elevated sea-surface temperatures and subsequent elevated rainfall and satellite-derived normalized difference vegetation index data. A Rift Valley fever (RVF) risk mapping model using these climate data predicted areas where outbreaks of RVF in humans and animals were expected and occurred in the Horn of Africa from December 2006 to May 2007. The predictions were subsequently confirmed by entomological and epidemiological field investigations of virus activity in the areas identified as at risk. Accurate spatial and temporal predictions of disease activity, as it occurred first in southern Somalia and then through much of Kenya before affecting northern Tanzania, provided a 2 to 6 week period of warning for the Horn of Africa that facilitated disease outbreak response and mitigation activities. To our knowledge, this is the first prospective prediction of a RVF outbreak.