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Patterns of univariate trait variation across metacommunities are widely explored, as are searches for their underlying causes. Surprisingly, patterns of multivariate shape remain unknown, and the search for drivers of functional traits of communities often neglect the biogeographical distribution of phylogenetic clades. Our aim was to investigate multivariate shape distribution across metacommunities and to determine the main environmental drivers of shape beyond/taking into account the phylogenetic distribution of lineages. We obtained mean skull and mandible shape for 228 species of Neotropical sigmodontine rodents through geometric morphometrics (GM), and then calculated mean shapes for 1° × 1° cells across the Neotropics based on the incidence of sigmodontines. We investigated the effects of lineage distribution on mean trait variation by using phylogenetic fuzzy weighting to calculate principal coordinates of phylogenetic structure (PCPS). Effects of environmental variables on shape variation incorporating phylogenetic composition were realized through redundancy analysis. We found that the different distributions of major lineages throughout the Neotropics were responsible for much of the mean shape variation. The association of landscape features with tribal groupings (Oryzomyini with Amazonia and Phyllotini and Abrotrichini with the Andes) were standouts. Environmental variables and lineage distribution explain the same (i.e. shared) portion of shape variation, suggesting phylogenetic niche conservatism at the metacommunity level. Seasonality in temperature and land cover were the best environmental predictors of mean shape: larger tympanic bullae, incisive foramina, and check teeth are all associated with highly seasonal and less vegetated areas. Our new approach of using GM shape across metacommunities was demonstrably useful in understanding large-scale biogeographical patterns of shape variation and identifying its underlying causes. The overlap between environmental variables and phylogenetic lineage distribution suggests that a process of niche conservatism is likely: the phenotype–environment correlation is mediated by the differential biogeographical distribution of the main clades.

The lesser grison ( ) is one of the least known carnivores in the Neotropical region. Its wide geographical occurrence and range of habitats could lead to morphological variations along its distribution. So, this study aimed to investigate the variation in skull shape and size of this species, by testing the existence of ecotypes adapted to their respective environments (Uruguayan savanna and Atlantic Forest), as well as its relationship with selected abiotic variables. The skulls of 52 museum specimens were photographed in the ventral, dorsal, and lateral views, and were analyzed using geometric morphometric techniques. We found sexual size dimorphism, with males being larger than females. The shape variation between sexes, as well as between ecoregions, is mostly explained by the effect of allometry. The specimens from Uruguayan savanna are larger than the ones from the Atlantic Forest. Size variation was also significantly correlated to latitude, temperature and precipitation patterns. No correlation between skull shape with geographical distance was detected. Morphometric measurements and diet data of lesser grison in regions from higher latitudes than our sampling show a tendency to heavier individuals, and the consumption of bigger prey compared to Uruguayan savanna. The results indicated the smaller specimens associated to low variability in annual temperature, congruent to Atlantic Forest region. An explanation for observed variation may be related to the \"resource rule\" but, due the minimal natural history information regards this species, we can just speculate about this.

For conservation purposes, it is important to take into account the suitability of a species to particular habitats; this information may predict the long-term survival of a species. In this sense, morphological measures of developmental stress, such as fluctuating asymmetry, can be proxies for an individual's performance in different regions. In this study, we conducted tests to determine whether areas with different levels of suitability for a species (generated by ecological niche models) were congruent with morphological markers that reflect environmental stress and morphological variance. We generated a Maxent niche model and compared the suitability assessments of several areas with the skull morphology data (fluctuating asymmetry and morphological disparity) of populations of the Atlantic forest endemic to Brazil rodent Akodon cursor. Our analyses showed a significant negative relationship between suitability levels and fluctuating asymmetry levels, which indicates that in less suitable areas, the individuals experience numerous disturbances during skull ontogeny. We have not found an association between morphological variance and environmental suitability. As expected, these results suggest that in environments with a lower suitability, developmental stress is increased. Such information is helpful in the understanding of the species evolution and in the selection of priority areas for the conservation of species.

We evaluated the leaching of dissolved organic and inorganic carbon (DOC and DIC, respectively) from leaf litter of plant species of the native Atlantic Forest and of Pinus elliottii (Engelm.) and Eucalyptus grandis (Hill ex Maiden) forests. We carried out experiments in which leaves from each forest system (native, E. grandis, and P. elliottii) were placed in reactors with sterile water. After 1/4 h, 1 h, 4 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h of incubation, we quantified the concentrations of DIC and DOC of each leachate. The greatest quantity of DIC was leached in the native forest system, whereas the greatest quantity of DOC was leached in the E. grandis forest system. With respect to the period of year, the greatest quantity of DIC was leached in autumn, whereas that of DOC was leached in the summer. Our results demonstrated that the replacement of native species in riparian zones, by non-native forest monocultures, could alter the chemical composition of the water. Finally, the results presented in this paper reinforce the need for a more careful look at ecological processes.

Abstract Aim Our aim in this study was to evaluate the effects of land use in drainage basins of the streams on the taxonomic and functional composition of aquatic invertebrate communities associated in leaf litter. Methods We evaluated the colonisation of invertebrates in the incubated plant debris in streams with presence and absence of riparian vegetation and different land-uses in the drainage area. We used the litter bags approach. Results The taxonomic and functional composition invertebrate associated with leaf litter ranged between streams. In addition, streams with presence of vegetation showed less variation taxonomic and functional composition communities. Still, the density of shredders invertebrates were lower in streams without vegetation. Conclusions The riparian vegetation is an important environmental factor in the composition of invertebrates. However, the land-use throughout the drainage basin should be considered as relevant factor in structuring aquatic biota. Resumo Objetivo O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos de usos da terra em bacias de drenagem de riachos sobre a composição taxonômica e funcional das comunidades de invertebrados aquáticos associados a detritos foliares. Métodos Avaliamos a colonização de invertebrados em detritos de plantas incubadas em riachos com presença e ausência de vegetação ripária e diferentes usos da terra na área de drenagem. Utilizamos a abordagem de litter bags. Resultados A composição taxonômica e funcional da fauna de invertebrados associados aos detritos variou entre os riachos. Além disso, os riachos com presença de vegetação mostraram comunidades com menor variação taxonômica e funcional. Ainda, a densidade de invertebrados fragmentadores foi menor nos riachos sem vegetação. Conclusões A porcentagem de vegetação ripária é um fator ambiental importante na composição dos invertebrados. Porém, os usos da terra em toda a bacia de drenagem devem ser considerados como fatores relevantes na estruturação da biota aquática.

Evolutionary radiations on continents are less well-understood and appreciated than those occurring on islands. The extent of ecological influence on species divergence can be evaluated to determine whether a radiation was ultimately the outcome of divergent natural selection or else arose mainly by nonecological divergence. Here, we used phylogenetic comparative methods to test distinct hypotheses corresponding to adaptive and nonadaptive evolutionary scenarios for the morphological evolution of sigmodontine rodents. Results showed that ecological variables (diet and life-mode) explain little of the shape and size variation of sigmodontine skulls and mandibles. A Brownian model with varying rates for insectivory versus all other diets was the most likely evolutionary model. The insectivorous sigmodontines have a faster rate of morphological evolution than mice feeding on other diets, possibly due to stronger selection for features that aid insectivory. We also demonstrate that rapid early-lineage diversification is not accompanied by high morphological divergence among subclades, contrasting with island results. The geographic size of continents permits spatial segregation to a greater extent than on islands, allowing for allopatric distributions and escape from interspecific competition. We suggest that continental radiations of rodents are likely to produce a pattern of high species diversification coupled with a low degree of phenotypic specialization.

Evolutionary constraints and ecological pressures influence species' morphological diversity. The aim of this study was to explore patterns of morphological variation, to investigate the influence of environmental variables on morphological differentiation, and assess the strength of phylogenetic signal for the cranium and mandible in spiny rats of the genus Trinomys. We examined 377 crania and mandibles of all species of the genus Trinomys. We used geometric morphometric methods based on two-dimensional anatomical landmarks to describe cranium and mandible shape and size. Phylogenetic signal was tested using the K statistics and associations between morphology and environmental variables were made using a phylogenetic partial least squares analysis. We found marked differences in size and shape in the synchranium among species, especially in the segregation of T. albispinus and T. yonenagae from the other species, which in turn greatly overlapped both in size and shape spaces. We found a weak phylogenetic signal for size of the synchranium and intermediate phylogenetic signals for shape, a pattern similar to other studies. Differentiation of the synchranium shape in Trinomys was associated largely with precipitation-related variables, while the association between size and environmental variables was weak. Notably, Trinomys species inhabiting xeric environments had relatively larger tympanic bullae.

Aim: We describe patterns of skull size and shape variation in an Atlantic forest endemic rodent to test the influence of genetic structure, historical and environmental variables upon intraspecific morphological variability. Location: South America, Brazil, Atlantic forest. Methods: We analyse subtle differences in skull morphology of Akodon cursor through geometric morphometrics applied to 324 individuals from 12 localities distributed throughout the species range. Using cytochrome-b gene (cyt-b) sequences from 125 individuals (38 localities), we describe underlying patterns of genetic structure and transform them into distance measures that are included in our morphological analyses. We estimate the relative importance of genetic structure, historical variables and environmental variables on skull size and shape through mixed model selection and Akaike's information criterion. Results: Geographical patterns in skull size are mainly explained by non-random factors related to primary productivity and precipitation, whereas spatial shifts in shape correlate with mitochondrial divergence. Cytochrome-b data revealed a phylogeographic break around the Jequitinhonha River, yet striking morphological shifts were observed further south. Differences in palaeostability between regions, and the configuration of rivers, appear as secondary sources of explanation for observed patterns. Main conclusions: Multiple forces explain morphological variation within A. cursor. Teasing apart the effects of local adaptation and gene flow may be difficult, but is a key to improve our understanding of the drivers of intraspecific morphological variation. Our findings support the view that size is a more labile feature than shape, and that it may more easily break away from constraints imposed by gene flow. The combination of random and non-random factors, together with documented breaks in the distribution of the Atlantic forest over the Late Quaternary, accounts for the majority of morphological differences observed in A. cursor.

Aegla platensis is a freshwater crustacean species that forms a nonmonophyletic group, which may indicate that the taxon is composed of cryptic species. Our objective was to test if allopatric populations of A. platensis differ in carapace shape, aiming to clarify the species situation. We used a geometric morphometric approach to analyze the carapace shape of 11 populations of A. platensis , four from Argentina and seven from Brazil. Our results showed that all the populations differ significantly in carapace shape, except two populations from Argentina and two from Brazil. The Argentinean and Brazilian populations formed two separate groups and were separated by high values of shape distance. This suggests the existence of reproductive isolation between the populations from the two groups. Shape distances between populations within each country were lower. Allopatric populations of A. platensis may be isolated from each other by the difficulty of migration, leading to interruption of gene flow and differentiation in carapace shape.

A new species of tuco-tuco, genus Ctenomys, is described from sandy soils on the western slopes of the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. This species is distinguished from other named members of this South American endemic genus by several characteristics. Diagnostic traits for this proposed species are a diploid number of 50 chromosomes and an autosomal fundamental number of 68 arms, with the 1st pair much longer than in other related species. Qualitative and quantitative (geometric morphometrics) analyses of the skull morphology and phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene support species status, especially when compared with phylogenetically related and geographically neighboring species. Populations of this species have a narrow geographic distribution in a small area (∼500 km2) that has been suffering from anthropogenic pressure from soybean, pine, and eucalyptus plantations, as well as desertification. This scenario suggests that this species could be characterized as endangered. Uma nova espécie de tuco-tuco, gênero Ctenomys, é descrita para a região de solos arenosos no oeste do estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Esta espécie distinguiu-se das demais espécies do gênero, endêmico da América do Sul, através de diversas abordagens. O número diplóide 2n = 50 (número de braços autossômicos ou número fundamental NF = 68) com o primeiro par consideravelmente maior que outras espécies relacionadas, são características diagnósticas para a nova espécie. Análises qualitativas e quantitativas de morfologia do crânio, utilizando morfometria geométrica, bem como análises filogenéticas do gene mitocondrial citocromo b, suportam este status, principalmente em comparação com outras espécies do gênero relacionadas filogeneticamente e próxima geograficamente. Com área de ocorrência restrita à aproximadamente 500 km2, esta espécie encontra-se extremamente ameaçada devido à intensa produção de soja e silvicultura na região, além de processos de desertificação. Este cenário sugere que a nova espécie seja categorizada como ameaçada.