Explore the vast range of titles available.

There is growing policy interest in identifying contexts that cultivate self-regulation. Doing so often entails comparing groups of individuals (e.g., from different schools). We show that self-report questionnaires—the most prevalent modality for assessing self-regulation—are prone to reference bias , defined as systematic error arising from differences in the implicit standards by which individuals evaluate behavior. In three studies, adolescents ( N = 229,685) whose peers performed better academically rated themselves lower in self-regulation and held higher standards for self-regulation. This effect was not observed for task measures of self-regulation and led to paradoxical predictions of college persistence 6 years later. These findings suggest that standards for self-regulation vary by social group, limiting the policy applications of self-report questionnaires.

Compared with admissions test scores, why are high school grades better at predicting college graduation? We argue that success in college requires not only cognitive ability but also self-regulatory competencies that are bette indexed by high school grades. In a national sample of 47,303 students who applied to college for the 2009/2010 academic year, Study 1 affirmed that high school grades out-predicted test scores for 4-year college graduation. In a convenience sample of 1,622 high school seniors in the Class of 2013, Study 2 revealed that the incremental predictive validity of high school grades for college graduation was explained by composite measures of self regulation, whereas the incremental predictive validity of test scores was explained by composite measures of cognitive ability.

Objectives This paper describes the emergence of the scientific study of mindfulness in schools; summarizes findings of experimental research on the impacts of school-based mindfulness programs (SBMPs) on student outcomes in prekindergarten, primary, and secondary school settings (ages 4–18 years); discusses scientific limitations and wider critiques of this work; and offers suggestions for future research. Methods Public data are used to describe the emergence of science on SBMPs, the foci of this research, and the academic disciplines contributing to it. A narrative summary of scientific findings regarding the impacts of SBMPs on students, and critiques of this work, is also presented. Results Research is increasing and is primarily psychological and prevention-oriented. Evidence shows SBMPs can enhance students’ self-regulation abilities, but SBMPs’ impacts on other student outcomes at different ages are equivocal. The current research has significant limitations, and these, alongside wider critiques of the work, suggest important directions for research. Conclusions In the next generation of science, we suggest (a) improving the experimental research; (b) expanding developmental research; and (c) re-envisioning assumptions, theories, and methods in research to go “beyond all splits” towards a non-dualistic and relationally, culturally, contextually, ethically, and developmentally grounded science on mindfulness and compassion for students in schools.

Research shows greater mindfulness is associated with less negative affect and more positive affect. Fewer studies have examined the mediating psychological processes linking mindfulness to these outcomes in adolescents. This three-wave, prospective longitudinal study examines rumination—the tendency to engage in repetitive and negative self-focused thinking—as one potential explanatory process. High school students (N = 599, Mage = 16.3 years; 49% girls) completed a short-form version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, in addition to self-report measures of rumination and negative and positive affect three times over the course of a school year. Autoregressive, cross-lagged panel models tested reciprocal, prospective associations between mindfulness, rumination, and negative and positive affect, while accounting for prior levels of each construct, within-wave covariances, and gender and grade level. The results showed that the nonjudgment mindfulness facet (and the total mindfulness score) predicted cross-wave reductions in rumination, that in turn predicted cross-wave reductions in negative affect. No evidence for mediation was found for positive affect, or for any of the other mindfulness facets (describe, acting with awareness, and nonreactivity). This study provides suggestive evidence that individual differences in mindfulness, and in particular nonjudgmental acceptance, prospectively predict less negative affect through lower rumination.

This special section includes a series of papers that envision the next generation of research on school-based mindfulness programming (SBMP) for students ages 4–18 years. In the first paper, Roeser et al ( Mindfulness 13, 2022b) summarize the current evidence of SBMPs, as well as limitations and critiques of this work. Based on their review, they propose improving experimental research and incorporating diverse theories and methods in future research that go “beyond all splits” towards a non-dualistic and relationally, culturally, contextually, ethically, and developmentally grounded science on mindfulness and compassion for students in schools. In a second paper, Baelen et al. ( Mindfulness 13, 2022) describe a framework to enhance the consistency and completeness in implementation reporting in experimental research on SBMPs for students in order to increase our ability to draw causal inferences about the range of implementation elements that might explain program impacts on students of different ages and backgrounds in a diverse array of school contexts, and to support replication efforts and translation of research to practice. In a third paper, Felver et al. ( Mindfulness 13, 2022) utilize the Delphi consensus methodology with thought leaders involved in mindfulness practice and research to identify core components of mindfulness-based programming for youth that may inform future research and applied work. Commentaries on the first two papers follow.

Objectives In recent years, mindfulness has gone mainstream, reaching many adolescents through school programs and smartphone applications. Yet there is little empirical understanding of what mindfulness practice is like for adolescents. This mixed-methods study sought to capture adolescents’ lived experiences as they embarked on a period of intensive mindfulness practice. Methods Twenty-three self-selected youth ( M age  = 16.68 years, SD  = 1.55; 57% girls, 43% boys; 52% White, 13% African American, 4% Latino, 4% East Asian, and 26% Multiracial) participated in a 6-day residential mindfulness retreat. Participants completed self-report surveys, open-ended daily diaries, and discussed their experiences in focus groups. Qualitative data were analyzed using a two-cycle coding process to categorize common patterns of adolescents’ experiences during mindfulness practice and quantitative data were examined for demographic subgroup differences. Results Adolescents reported an array of experiences of distress from cognitive (83% of adolescents; e.g., self-loathing and rumination), to emotional (87% of adolescents; e.g., sadness), and to physical distress (44% of adolescents; e.g., physical pain) during mindfulness practice. They also described a range of well-being experiences from cognitive (87% of adolescents; e.g., self-inquiry and discovery), to emotional (65% of adolescents; e.g., acceptance), and to social well-being (39% of adolescents; e.g., loving-kindness and connection). The frequency of experiences of distress and well-being reported were relatively balanced overall, yet girls and experienced meditators reported greater distress. Conclusions This study paints a descriptive picture of adolescents’ experiences during mindfulness practice and suggested that their experiences might reflect core developmental concerns. Implications for adolescent development and contemplative science are discussed.

In an attempt to replicate and clarify previous research, we examined the associations between the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) and measures of sustained (Continuous Performance Test; CPT) and executive (Stroop) attention in a community sample of adults ( n  = 106). After controlling for age, gender, education, socio-economic status, IQ, and depression and anxiety, analyses indicated that the KIMS-Observe scale predicted enhanced Stroop performance and reduced variability in attentional processing on the CPT. Post hoc analyses also provided evidence that the associative strength between KIMS-Observe and reduced CPT reaction time variability increased as a function of task block, suggestive of a protective effect against attentional lapses due to prolonged exposure to the CPT. While the present study failed to replicate previously reported associations between KIMS and attentional functioning, the consistency of current findings to conceptualizations of mindfulness suggests that KIMS-Observe taps important attentional processes thought to underlie mindfulness.

The current study sought to evaluate the relative long-term efficacy of a modularized cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) program for children with anxiety disorders. Twenty four children (5–12 years old) randomly assigned to modular CBT or a 3-month waitlist participated in a 1-year follow-up assessment. Independent evaluators blind to treatment condition conducted structured diagnostic interviews, and caregivers and children completed symptom checklists at pre- and post-, and 1 year follow-up assessments. Analyses revealed that 71.4% of children who received CBT demonstrated a positive treatment response 1 year following treatment, and 83.3% were free of any anxiety diagnosis at 1 year follow-up. Analyses further revealed robust effects of intervention on diagnostic outcomes, caregiver- and child-report measures of anxiety at 1 year follow-up. Results provide evidence of an ongoing advantage on anxiety-specific outcomes for this modularized school-based CBT program 1 year post-treatment.