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Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare and deadly demyelinating disease caused by JC virus (JCV) replication in the central nervous system. PML occurs exclusively in patients with severe underlying immune deficiencies, including AIDS and hematological malignancies. PML has also emerged as a significant threat to patients on potent new immunosuppressive biologics, including natalizumab in multiple sclerosis. Here, we developed an IFN-γ release assay (IGRA) that mainly detects JCV-specific effector memory T cells and effectors T cells in the blood. This assay was frequently positive in patients with active PML (with a positive JCV PCR in CSF) of various underlying immunosuppression causes (84% sensitivity). Only 3% of healthy donors had a positive response (97% specificity). The frequency of positivity also increased in multiple sclerosis patients according to the time on natalizumab (up to 36% in patients treated for more than 48 months, who are considered at a higher risk of PML). The results show this assay's frequent or increased positivity in patients with PML or an increased risk of PML, respectively. The assay may help to stratify the risk of PML.

We studied risk factors for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Recent combination antiretroviral therapy initiation was associated with a transient increase in the risk of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Injection drug users and hepatitis C virus-seropositive individuals were at a higher risk, while sub-Saharan African origin was not protective. Abstract Background Risk factors for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are poorly documented in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Methods We studied HIV-1-infected individuals aged ≥15 years who had no history of PML and were prospectively followed up between 1997 and 2011 in the French Hospital Database on HIV (FHDH-ANRS CO4) cohort. Cox models were used to calculate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs), focusing on sub-Saharan origin, suggested to be protective, and recent cART initiation, potentially associated with an increased risk of PML. Results PML developed in 555 individuals, in 57 during the first 6 months of cART. From 1997-2000 to 2009-2011, the incidence fell from 1.15 (95% confidence interval [CI], .98-1.31) to 0.49 (.37-.61) per 1000 person-years. Sub-Saharan African origin had no clear influence (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, .58-1.11). Compared with men who have sex with men, injection drug users (IDUs) were at higher risk (HR, 1.80 [95% CI, 1.32-2.45] for male and 1.68 [1.13-2.48] for female IDUs). When IDUs were excluded, hepatitis C virus seropositivity was associated with an increased risk (HR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.02-1.93). Compared with no cART initiation, initiation <6 months previously was associated with PML onset (HR, 4.91; 95% CI, 2.42-9.95). Conclusions Recent cART initiation is associated with an increased risk of PML, as are injection drug use and hepatitis C virus seropositivity. Sub-Saharan African origin had no protective effect.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare devastating demyelinating disease caused by the polyomavirus JC (JCV), occurs in severely immunocompromised patients, most of whom have advanced-stage HIV infection. Despite combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), 50% of patients die within 6 months of PML onset. We conducted a multicenter, open-label pilot trial evaluating the survival benefit of a five-drug cART designed to accelerate HIV replication decay and JCV-specific immune recovery. All the patients received an optimized cART with three or more drugs for 12 months, plus the fusion inhibitor enfuvirtide during the first 6 months. The main endpoint was the one-year survival rate. A total of 28 patients were enrolled. At entry, median CD4+ T-cell count was 53 per microliter and 86% of patients had detectable plasma HIV RNA and CSF JCV DNA levels. Seven patients died, all before month 4. The one-year survival estimate was 0.75 (95% confidence interval, 0.61 to 0.93). At month 6, JCV DNA was undetectable in the CSF of 81% of survivors. At month 12, 81% of patients had undetectable plasma HIV RNA, and the median CD4+ T-cell increment was 105 per microliter. In univariate analysis, higher total and naive CD4+ T-cell counts and lower CSF JCV DNA level at baseline were associated with better survival. JCV-specific functional memory CD4+ T-cell responses, based on a proliferation assay, were detected in 4% of patients at baseline and 43% at M12 (P = 0.008). The early use of five-drug cART after PML diagnosis appears to improve survival. This is associated with recovery of anti-JCV T-cell responses and JCV clearance from CSF. A low CD4+ T-cell count (particularly naive subset) and high JCV DNA copies in CSF at PML diagnosis appear to be risk factors for death. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00120367.

In HIV-infected patients on long-term HAART, virus persistence in resting long-lived CD4 T cells is a major barrier to curing the infection. Cell quiescence, by favouring HIV latency, reduces the risk of recognition and cell destruction by cytotoxic lymphocytes. Several cell-activation-based approaches have been proposed to disrupt cell quiescence and then virus latency, but these approaches have not eradicated the virus. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a CD4+ T-cell subset with particular activation properties. We investigated the role of these cells in virus persistence in patients on long-term HAART. We found evidence of infection of resting Tregs (HLADR(-)CD69(-)CD25(hi)FoxP3+CD4+ T cells) purified from patients on prolonged HAART. HIV DNA harbouring cells appear more abundant in the Treg subset than in non-Tregs. The half-life of the Treg reservoir was estimated at 20 months. Since Tregs from patients on prolonged HAART showed hyporesponsiveness to cell activation and inhibition of HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte-related functions upon activation, therapeutics targeting cell quiescence to induce virus expression may not be appropriate for purging the Treg reservoir. Our results identify Tregs as a particular compartment within the latent reservoir that may require a specific approach for its purging.

Many practical clinical questions regarding the management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)—associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) remain unanswered. We sought to identify and develop practical answers to key clinical questions in HAND management. Sixty-six specialists from 30 countries provided input into the program, which was overseen by a steering committee. Fourteen questions were rated as being of greatest clinical importance. Answers were drafted by an expert group based on a comprehensive literature review. Sixty-three experts convened to determine consensus and level of evidence for the answers. Consensus was reached on all answers. For instance, good practice suggests that all HIV patients should be screened for HAND early in disease using standardized tools. Follow-up frequency depends on whether HAND is already present or whether clinical data suggest risk for developing HAND. Worsening neurocognitive impairment may trigger consideration of antiretroviral modification when other causes have been excluded. The Mind Exchange program provides practical guidance in the diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of HAND.

Letter to the Editors

A monocenter observational study was conducted to determine the clinical and virological effects of cidofovir added to highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) in AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Exposure to other anti-viral drugs or late initiation of cidofovir were exclusion criteria. Of the 53 consecutive patients with virologically proven PML admitted at the NeuroAIDS Unit of Bicêtre Hospital between May 1996 and July 2000 and having received HAART with or without cidofovir, 46 met the inclusion criteria. Cidofovir was initiated in most cases on compassionate grounds. The 22 patients treated with HAART only (HAART group) were compared to the 24 patients treated with HAART and cidofovir (CDV group). Survival, neurological outcome assessed by the expanded disability status scale (EDSS), and monitoring of the JC virus (JCV) load in CSF were investigated prospectively. At baseline (date of initiation or intensification of HAART), both groups were similar regarding CD4 cell count, plasma HIV load, CSF JCV load, EDSS, and demographic features. Both groups had similar response to HAART in terms of plasma HIV load and CD4 cell count. At month 6, CSF-JCV load was below the detection level in 8 out of 24 (33%) patients from the CDV group and 7 out of 18 (39%) patients from the HAART group ( P = 0.71). One-year cumulative probability of being alive was 62% in the CDV group and 53% in the HAART group ( P = 0.72). However, an additional benefit with respect to survival was observed in patients who were given cidofovir after adjustment to the following baseline variables (CSF-JCV load, CD4 cell count, and EDSS). Despite the addition of cidofovir to HAART, no significant benefit had been observed in neurological outcome, particularly in patients with an early worsening. Journal of NeuroVirology (2001) 7, 375-381.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a deadly demyelinating disease due to JC virus (JCV) replication in the brain. PML classically occurs in patients with severe immunodepression, and cases have recently been linked to therapeutic monoclonal antibodies such as natalizumab and also rituximab, which depletes B cells. B cells appear to play a complex role in the pathogenesis of PML. They may act as a viral reservoir and as a vector for viral dissemination in the central nervous system. Anti-JCV antibody responses appear to have a limited effect on JCV replication in the brain. However, accumulating evidence suggests that B cells may considerably influence T cell responses through their cytokine secretion. This immunomodulatory function of B cells may play an important role in the control of JCV infection and in the pathogenesis of PML, including rituximab-induced PML.

HAART-induced immune restoration is beneficial for patients with AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). However, in rare instances, an immune-reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) may cause paradoxical clinical deterioration. We report the neuropathological study of an AIDS patient who presented with progressive cognitive deterioration; CD4(+) count was 117 and the HIV viral load >10(4); imaging showed non-enhancing lesions consistent with PML. Following initiation of HAART, CD4(+) was 300 and HIV viral load <10(3), but his neurological symptoms continued to deteriorate. Imaging revealed an increase in the size and number of lesions and enhancement of all the lesions. A stereotactic biopsy showed severe inflammatory and demyelinating lesions with marked infiltration by macrophages and T lymphocytes in the absence of a detectable infectious agent. Despite high doses of steroids, the patient died 3 months after admission. Autopsy showed two types of lesions: (1) active inflammatory PML changes with abundant JC virus, and intraparenchymal and perivascular infiltration by T lymphocytes, and (2) acute perivenous leukoencephalitis devoid of JC virus. Most lymphocytes were CD8(+) lymphocytes; CD4(+) lymphocytes were virtually absent. Two pathological reactions were associated with the paradoxical clinical deterioration related to dysregulation of the immune response characteristic of IRIS in PML: (1) an accentuation of JCV infection, and (2) a nonspecific acute perivenous leukoencephalitis. We suggest that both these types of lesions are due to an imbalance of CD8(+)/CD4(+) T cells, with massive infiltration of the cerebral parenchyma by CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes in the absence of sufficient CD4(+) response. Better understanding of the mechanisms of the IRIS may enable prevention or cure of this severe, sometimes fatal complication of HAART.

Abstract This study aimed to determine dolutegravir cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diffusion in 13 patients with HIV-related cerebral impairment enrolled in a real-life observational study. Dolutegravir median (range) CSF concentration [9.6 (3.6–22.8) ng/mL] reached CSF therapeutic concentrations whatever the blood-brain barrier status and diffused in correlation with the albumin quotient (P = .0186).