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Increasing awareness of balanced diet benefits is boosting the demand for high-protein food and beverages. Sports supplements are often preferred over traditional protein sources to meet the appropriate dietary intake since they are widely available on the market as stable ready-to-eat products. However, the protein components may vary depending on both sources and processing conditions. The protein fraction of five commercial sports supplements was characterized and compared with that of typical industrial ingredients, i.e., whey protein concentrates and isolates and whey powder. The capillary electrophoresis profiles and the amino acid patterns indicated that, in some cases, the protein was extensively glycosylated and the supplemented amino acids did not correspond to those declared on the label by manufacturers. The evaluation by confocal laser scanning microscopy evidenced the presence of large aggregates mainly enforced by covalent crosslinks. The obtained findings suggest that, beside composition figures, provisions regarding sports supplements should also consider quality aspects, and mandatory batch testing of these products would provide more reliable information to sport dieticians.

Biopolymers of different natures (carbohydrates, proteins, etc.) recovered from by-products of industrial processes are increasingly being studied to obtain biomaterials as alternatives to conventional plastics, thus contributing to the implementation of a circular economy. The food industry generates huge amounts of by-products and waste, including unsold food products that reach the end of their shelf life and are no longer usable in the food chain. Milk proteins can be easily separated from dairy waste and adapted into effective bio-based polymeric materials. Firstly, this review describes the relevant properties of milk proteins and the approaches to modifying them for subsequent use. Then, we provide an overview of recent studies on the development of films and coatings based on milk proteins and, where available, their applications in food packaging. Comparisons among published studies were made based on the formulation as well as production conditions and technologies. The role of different additives and modifiers tested for the performances of films and coatings, such as water vapor permeability, tensile strength, and elongation at break, were reviewed. This review also outlines the limitations of milk-protein-based materials, such as moisture sensitivity and brittleness. Overall, milk proteins hold great potential as a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based polymers. However, their use in food packaging materials at an industrial level remains problematic.

This study explored the functionalization of sodium caseinate (NaCas) using environmentally friendly approaches to improve the mechanical and structural properties of the derived films. NaCas functionalization was achieved through casein crosslinking using two approaches: (i) thermal treatment at an alkaline pH to induce the formation of lysinoalanine (LAL) and (ii) riboflavin-mediated photo-oxidation to induce the formation of di-tyrosine (di-Tyr). Starting from NaCas (not functionalized, control) obtained from pasteurized milk, three functionalized NaCas samples were prepared: one sample crosslinked by LAL, and two samples crosslinked by di-Tyr formed under LED light either with or without riboflavin. The amount of crosslinking was evaluated in the acid hydrolysates through HPLC methods using either fluorescence (di-Tyr) or MS (LAL) detection. Heat treatment at pH 9 induced the formation of up to 3540 µg of LAL/g casein, whereas LED light exposure in the presence of riboflavin promoted the formation of up to 500 µg of di-Tyr/g casein. The formation of crosslinks at the intermolecular level, which resulted in protein aggregation, was detected by SDS-PAGE. Films were obtained by mixing the water solutions of the four NaCas samples with glycerol as the plasticizer and casting them. The FTIR spectra revealed that the formation of crosslinks also induced changes in the secondary structure of NaCas, which were conserved in the derived films. Mechanical testing demonstrated that di-Tyr crosslinks enhanced film ductility, while LAL crosslinks increased tensile strength and stiffness.

Purpose Following primary human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, both humoral and T-cell-mediated immune responses develop in immunocompetent subjects. However, while antibodies may be measured by different methodologies, the T-cell-mediated response remains to be analyzed in its polyfunctional aspects, in view of defining (following different stimuli) the optimal assay to monitor the HCMV-specific T-cell response in HCMV-seropositive subjects. Methods In a group of 30 HCMV-seropositive adults, T-cell response revealed by the HCMV-infected dendritic cell (iDC) stimulus was compared with those given by the HCMV-infected cell lysate (iCL), and by a 34-peptide pool (PP). Results All HCMV-seropositive subjects showed presence of both HCMV-specific CD4 + and CD8 + T-cells in peripheral blood following iDC stimulation. One subject did not respond to PP. As compared to iDC, the number of HCMV-specific stimulated T-cells/μl blood was slightly lower for iCL ( P  = 0.195) and significantly lower for PP ( P  = 0.001). Polyfunctional analysis of the T-cell response indicated that the lower number of CD4 + T-cells stimulated by iCL was due to the bifunctional (IFN-γ + TNF-α + ) and CD40L-negative T-cell reduction, while the reduction in specific PP-stimulated CD8 + T-cells was attributable to the reduction in tri-(IFN-γ + TNF-α + IL2 + ), bi-(IFN-γ + TNF-α + ) and mono-(IFN-γ + ) functional T-cells. In addition, 15/30 (50 %) subjects showed a CD4 + cross-response to PP, and 11/30 (37 %) a CD8 + cross-response to iCL. Conclusions HCMV-specific stimulus given by iDC is not significantly different from that of iCL on CD4 + and is significantly superior to that of PP on CD8+ T-cells. However, iCL may contribute significantly to CD8 + , and PP to CD4 + T-cell stimulation.

Following primary human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, both humoral and T-cell-mediated immune responses develop in immunocompetent subjects. However, while antibodies may be measured by different methodologies, the T-cell-mediated response remains to be analyzed in its polyfunctional aspects, in view of defining (following different stimuli) the optimal assay to monitor the HCMV-specific T-cell response in HCMV-seropositive subjects. In a group of 30 HCMV-seropositive adults, T-cell response revealed by the HCMV-infected dendritic cell (iDC) stimulus was compared with those given by the HCMV-infected cell lysate (iCL), and by a 34-peptide pool (PP). All HCMV-seropositive subjects showed presence of both HCMV-specific CD4^sup +^ and CD8^sup +^ T-cells in peripheral blood following iDC stimulation. One subject did not respond to PP. As compared to iDC, the number of HCMV-specific stimulated T-cells/[mu]l blood was slightly lower for iCL (P=0.195) and significantly lower for PP (P=0.001). Polyfunctional analysis of the T-cell response indicated that the lower number of CD4^sup +^ T-cells stimulated by iCL was due to the bifunctional (IFN-γ^sup +^ TNF-[alpha]^sup +^) and CD40L-negative T-cell reduction, while the reduction in specific PP-stimulated CD8^sup +^ T-cells was attributable to the reduction in tri-(IFN-γ^sup +^ TNF-[alpha]^sup +^ IL2^sup +^), bi-(IFN-γ^sup +^ TNF-[alpha]^sup +^) and mono-(IFN-γ^sup +^) functional T-cells. In addition, 15/30 (50 %) subjects showed a CD4^sup +^ cross-response to PP, and 11/30 (37 %) a CD8^sup +^ cross-response to iCL. HCMV-specific stimulus given by iDC is not significantly different from that of iCL on CD4^sup +^ and is significantly superior to that of PP on CD8+ T-cells. However, iCL may contribute significantly to CD8^sup +^, and PP to CD4^sup +^ T-cell stimulation.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Purpose: Following primary human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, both humoral and T-cell-mediated immune responses develop in immunocompetent subjects. However, while antibodies may be measured by different methodologies, the T-cell-mediated response remains to be analyzed in its polyfunctional aspects, in view of defining (following different stimuli) the optimal assay to monitor the HCMV-specific T-cell response in HCMV-seropositive subjects. Methods: In a group of 30 HCMV-seropositive adults, T-cell response revealed by the HCMV-infected dendritic cell (iDC) stimulus was compared with those given by the HCMV-infected cell lysate (iCL), and by a 34-peptide pool (PP). Results: All HCMV-seropositive subjects showed presence of both HCMV-specific CD4 super(+) and CD8 super(+) T-cells in peripheral blood following iDC stimulation. One subject did not respond to PP. As compared to iDC, the number of HCMV-specific stimulated T-cells/ mu l blood was slightly lower for iCL (P=0.195) and significantly lower for PP (P=0.001). Polyfunctional analysis of the T-cell response indicated that the lower number of CD4 super(+) T-cells stimulated by iCL was due to the bifunctional (IFN- gamma super(+) TNF- alpha super(+)) and CD40L-negative T-cell reduction, while the reduction in specific PP-stimulated CD8 super(+) T-cells was attributable to the reduction in tri-(IFN- gamma super(+) TNF- alpha super(+) IL2 super(+)), bi-(IFN- gamma super(+) TNF- alpha super(+)) and mono-(IFN- gamma super(+)) functional T-cells. In addition, 15/30 (50 %) subjects showed a CD4 super(+) cross-response to PP, and 11/30 (37 %) a CD8 super(+) cross-response to iCL. Conclusions: HCMV-specific stimulus given by iDC is not significantly different from that of iCL on CD4 super(+) and is significantly superior to that of PP on CD8+ T-cells. However, iCL may contribute significantly to CD8 super(+), and PP to CD4 super(+) T-cell stimulation.