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In the Bolivian Altiplano, indigenous systems for dealing with weather and climate risk are failing or being lost as a result of migration, climate change, and market integration. Andean rural communities are particularly vulnerable to changing social and environmental conditions. Changing climate over the past forty years and current forecast models point to increasing temperatures and later onset of rains during the growing season. Current meteorological models are coarse grained and not well suited to the complex topology of the Andes-so local-scale information is required for decisions. This article outlines a process for developing new local knowledge that can be used to enhance adaptive processes. This is a three-step process that includes assessment of local knowledge, the development of future scenarios, and the use of participatory research methods to identify alternative adaptation strategies. Initial analyses based on the survey of 330 households in nine communities indicate that northern Alitplano communities are more vulnerable than central Altiplano ones. In both areas, losses from climate shocks are high, but the types of hazards vary by location. The use of local knowledge indicators of climate is declining, and downscaling of climate forecasts is unlikely to occur due to the lack of data points and the large number of microclimates. Participatory mapping and research, where knowledge is shared, are processes that enhance adaptive capacity and are critical to building resilience. This article outlines a strategy for linking science-based and indigenous methods to develop early warning systems that are an important part of coping strategies. This approach combines science and indigenous knowledge to enhance adaptive capacity.

The Andes region, a unique high-mountain environment, includes a wide variety of ecosystems. A significant portion of the population depends on soil ecosystem services that are highly influenced by local soil quality. Soil quality is frequently evaluated through soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration (main component of soil organic matter, SOM). However, SOM and SOC are poorly studied in the South American Andes. By reviewing the available literature with focus on SOC, we identified gaps in data and information needed to study soil functioning as a key factor for carbon sequestration along food production and food and water security. Despite reduced data availability and large reported variability in SOC concentration, we found consensus about large SOC accumulation in peatlands with outstanding potential as a carbon sink but also as a carbon source. In addition, important reservoirs in forests and grasslands were reported. In undisturbed lands, SOC is largely conserved by the region’s low prevailing temperatures due to high elevations. However, the SOC stocks are potentially endangered by global warming. Results suggest that local soil management (fallow, crop rotation, terraces) might have positive impacts on SOC concentration, however, limited data and studies were available to be conclusive and some contradictory results are reported. As expected, soil bulk density is strongly and negatively correlated with SOC while the high negative correlation with pH demonstrates large SOC concentration in acidic soils. Total nitrogen shows poor relation with SOC in Andosols but is highly correlated with Cambisols, Regosols, and Phaeozems with a variation under land cover and use. Our results demonstrate that it is of paramount importance to develop more research on Andean soils to support the conservation and management of this valuable resource, to guide land managers/decision-makers for the integrated planning of Andean ecosystems and to explore their potential functions as C sink, which was practically not found in our inventory.

Forecasts play an important role in planting decisions for Andean peasant producers. Predictions of the upcoming cropping season determine when, where, and what farmers will plant. This research looks at the sources of forecast information used by farmers in three indigenous communities in the Bolivian and Peruvian Altiplano by examining networks used to access weather forecasts. The Altiplano is impacted by the ENSO phenomenon and by frequent droughts and frosts so weather- and climate-related risks are the greatest threats to food security. While both Peru and Bolivia have forecasting systems that widely broadcast forecasts via mass media, farmers do not take them into account when they make production decisions. Instead, they rely on traditional forecasting techniques even though confidence in these indicators is declining. Even though traditional forecast indicators are understood by most producers, few make their own forecasts. Instead they depend upon a few local experts who appear to have little connection to scientific forecasts or agricultural extension agencies. The implications of these findings for improving forecast use are then discussed.

The development and utility of genetically modified (GM) crops for smallholders around the world is controversial. Critical questions include what traits and crops are to be developed; how they can be adapted to smallholders’ ecological, social and economic contexts; which dissemination channels should be used to reach smallholders; and which policy environments will enable the greatest benefits for smallholders and the rural poor. A key question is how the voices of smallholders who have experience with or desire to use GM technologies enter the larger debate. Africa has the greatest number of smallholders and poor with the least exposure to GM crops. Because of the well-established use of GM crops in South Africa by commercial farmers, we formed a community of practice (CoP) involving smallholders, extension, researchers, non-profits and agribusiness in KwaZulu-Natal to examine the conditions under which GM crops are used by smallholders, how smallholders interact with GM technologies and what insights smallholders and other stakeholders can provide regarding these questions. One of the advantages of the CoP approach is that it brings stakeholders together in a non-hierarchical way that encourages new ways of thinking and new partnerships. Such interaction around a specific project can enhance the voice of smallholders in a variety of ways. In our project, smallholder participants have increased their knowledge and can make better decisions about GM technologies, which had been barriers for them. Notably, they have also improved their knowledge of maize production practices, accessed new practice networks, and met new researchers and resource providers. They are now being integrated into these networks in a way that should improve their livelihoods and make the wants and needs of smallholders better known. Such knowledge and experience has improved their voice in agriculture and rural development discussions.

Rural families must constantly negotiate their livelihoods by obtaining access to natural resources, labor, capital, knowledge, and markets. Successful negotiation leads to enhanced family well-being and sustainable use of natural resources. Unsuccessful negotiation threatens family survival, threatens sustainable use of natural resources, and reduces bio-diversity. These negotiation processes are mediated by gender relations. The ideas of negotiation and of survival strategies outlined here provide a framework within which the articles of this issue can be situated. The articles are the result of research on gender and natural resource management conducted in Latin America, Asia, Africa, and North America. Each experience illustrates the consequences for natural resources and family well being when they have voice and when they do not have voice in household decisions. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

It is argued that the Legitimate Violence Index (LVX) used by Murray A. Straus & Larry Baron (see SA 37:1/89U3029) to explain higher rates of homicide in the US South is not independent of geographic region or a measure of cultural acceptance of violence, as it is confounded with population density; further, eight of the twelve indicators of LVX have validity problems, & the construction of LVX is flawed. Failure to include a density variable in LVX makes research results suspect, since a recalculation leads to different results. In The Strength of Weak Indicators: Response to Gilles, Brown, Geletta, and Dalecki, Straus & Baron (U of New Hampshire, Durham) disagree with the comments, address the alleged indicator coding errors, defend the validity of the indicators, & maintain that consideration of the theoretical importance of population density leads to findings consistent with their theory. 3 Tables, 9 References. M. Malas

F. H. Buttel & O. W. Larson, III (see SA 29:1/81L2315) have used the aggregate state-level data contained in the Census of Agriculture (no publication information available) to study the relationship between farm size, structure, & energy consumption. Since data are aggregated on the basis of political units, problems arise both from the general question of ecological inference & from the question of whether political & agricultural boundaries have sufficient similarity for valid results. Reanalysis of Buttel's & Larson's data from the 48 contiguous states supports use of climatic variations rather than farm size as the primary explanation of variations in energy use. The nature of the relation of farm size to energy use becomes complex & variable when this factor is considered. In Farm Size, Farm Structure, Climate, and Energy: A Reconsideration, Oscar W. Larson, III, & Frederick H. Buttel (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY) note that the omission of climatic variables from the original study was due not to lack of data but to lack of theoretical justification for their use. Climatic factors are best perceived as contextual variables rather than as attributes of farm systems. Aggregate data have the advantage of making research possible on otherwise inaccessible topics. 4 Tables. W. H. Stoddard.