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Background Two strains of the endoparasitoid Cotesia typhae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) present a differential parasitism success on the host, Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). One is virulent on both permissive and resistant host populations, and the other only on the permissive host. This interaction provides a very interesting frame for studying virulence factors. Here, we used a combination of comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses to unravel the molecular basis underlying virulence differences between the strains. Results First, we report that virulence genes are mostly expressed during the pupal stage 24 h before adult emergence of the parasitoid. Especially, 55 proviral genes are up-regulated at this stage, while their expression is only expected in the host. Parasitoid gene expression in the host increases from 24 to 96 h post-parasitism, revealing the expression of 54 proviral genes at early parasitism stage and the active participation of teratocytes to the parasitism success at the late stage. Secondly, comparison between strains reveals differences in venom composition, with 12 proteins showing differential abundance. Proviral expression in the host displays a strong temporal variability, along with differential patterns between strains. Notably, a subset of proviral genes including protein-tyrosine phosphatases is specifically over-expressed in the resistant host parasitized by the less virulent strain, 24 h after parasitism. This result particularly hints at host modulation of proviral expression. Combining proteomic and transcriptomic data at various stages, we identified 8 candidate genes to support the difference in reproductive success of the two strains, one proviral and 7 venom genes, one of them being also produced within the host by the teratocytes. Conclusions This study sheds light on the temporal expression of virulence factors of Cotesia typhae , both in the host and in the parasitoid. It also identifies potential molecular candidates driving differences in parasitism success between two strains. Together, those findings provide a path for further exploration of virulence mechanisms in parasitoid wasps, and offer insights into host-parasitoid coevolution.

Sexual dimorphism in somatic investment may be shaped by two distinct forms of sexual conflict; under intralocus sexual conflict (IASC), males and females have different optimal levels of somatic investment but are constrained from reaching their respective optima by their shared genome, while under interlocus sexual conflict (IRSC), males and females have different optimal sexual strategies, which could have direct or indirect effects on levels of somatic investment. We investigated effects of IASC and IRSC on two aspects of somatic investment, immune defence strategies and longevity, using previously established female-limited experimental evolution lines in Drosophila melanogaster. We found little evidence for any effect of either type of sexual conflict on investment in the immune defence resistance or tolerance. Nor did we find convincing evidence that longevity is subject to IASC in this species. However, we did find evidence that increased female control over mating rate had important and opposite effects on longevity between the sexes. Specifically, females that had adapted to high levels of female control over mating had a longer lifespan when kept in mixed-sex groups, while males had shorter longevity, perhaps due to increased investment in post-copulatory sexual selection. These novel results show that female control over mating rates may have important and unexpected effects on patterns of somatic investment.Significance statementSexual conflict occurs between the two sexes over numerous life history traits, and it is complex to disentangle how these traits interact and affect each other. Here we use a long-term evolution experiment to investigate sexual dimorphism in somatic maintenance. We found no effect of feminising the X chromosome on female immune defence. However, we did find that increased female control over mating rate resulted in longer female lifespan, but reduced male lifespan, and that these effects were dependent on social context (isolated or in mixed-sex groups). Unlike previous studies on the effect of sexual conflict on longevity, our experiment did not manipulate environmental conditions nor the adult sex ratio, which is likely to reduce both pre- and post-copulatory sexual selection.

Background: Two strains of the endoparasitoid Cotesia typhae present a differential parasitism success on the host, Sesamia nonagrioides. One is virulent on both permissive and resistant host populations, and the other only on the permissive host. This interaction provides a very interesting frame for studying virulence factors. Here, we used a combination of comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses to unravel the molecular basis underlying virulence differences between the strains.Results: First, we report that virulence genes are mostly expressed during the nymphal stage of the parasitoid. Especially, proviral genes are broadly up-regulated at this stage, while their expression is only expected in the host. Parasitoid gene expression in the host increases with time, indicating the production of more virulence factors. Secondly, comparison between strains reveals differences in venom composition, with 12 proteins showing differential abundance. Proviral expression in the host displays a strong temporal variability, along with differential patterns between strains. Notably, a subset of proviral genes including protein-tyrosine phosphatases is specifically over-expressed in the resistant host parasitized by the less virulent strain, 24 hours after parasitism. This result particularly hints at host modulation of proviral expression.Conclusions: This study sheds light on the temporal expression of virulence factors of Cotesia typhae, both in the host and in the parasitoid. It also identifies potential molecular candidates driving differences in parasitism success between two strains. Together, those findings provide a path for further exploration of virulence mechanisms in parasitoid wasps, and offer insights into host-parasitoid coevolution.

Cotesia typhae is an eastern African endoparasitoid braconid wasp that targets the larval stage of the lepidopteran stem borer, Sesamia nonagrioides, a maize crop pest in Europe. The French host population is partially resistant to the Makindu strain of the wasp, allowing its development in only 40% of the cases. Resistant larvae can encapsulate the parasitoid and survive the infection. This interaction provides a very interesting frame for investigating the impact of parasitism on host cellular resistance. We characterized the parasitoid ovolarval development in a permissive host and studied the encapsulation process in a resistant host by dissection and histological sectioning compared to that of inert chromatography beads. We measured the total hemocyte count in parasitized and bead-injected larvae over time to monitor the magnitude of the immune reaction. Our results show that parasitism of resistant hosts delayed encapsulation but did not affect immune abilities towards inert beads. Moreover, while bead injection increased total hemocyte count, it remained constant in resistant and permissive larvae. We conclude that while Cotesia spp virulence factors are known to impair the host immune system, our results suggest that passive evasion could also occur.