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Agroforestry systems (AFS) can provide positive ecosystem services while at the same time stabilizing yields under increasingly common drought conditions. The effect of distance to trees in alley cropping AFS on yield-related crop parameters has predominantly been studied using point data from transects. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) offer a novel possibility to map plant traits with high spatial resolution and coverage. In the present study, UAV-borne red, green, blue (RGB) and multispectral imagery was utilized for the prediction of whole crop dry biomass yield (DM) and leaf area index (LAI) of barley at three different conventionally managed silvoarable alley cropping agroforestry sites located in Germany. DM and LAI were modelled using random forest regression models with good accuracies (DM: R² 0.62, nRMSEp 14.9%, LAI: R² 0.92, nRMSEp 7.1%). Important variables for prediction included normalized reflectance, vegetation indices, texture and plant height. Maps were produced from model predictions for spatial analysis, showing significant effects of distance to trees on DM and LAI. Spatial patterns differed greatly between the sampled sites and suggested management and soil effects overriding tree effects across large portions of 96 m wide crop alleys, thus questioning alleged impacts of AFS tree rows on yield distribution in intensively managed barley populations. Models based on UAV-borne imagery proved to be a valuable novel tool for prediction of DM and LAI at high accuracies, revealing spatial variability in AFS with high spatial resolution and coverage.

Agroforestry systems (AFSs) are promoted as environmentally friendly and climate-change-resilient cultivation systems with the potential of increasing ecosystem services. Especially under temperate climatic conditions, the implementation in agricultural practice is low so far, inter alia due to the lack of knowledge regarding longer-term effects of such systems. This study investigated biomass yields and crop development during the second rotation of an alley cropping system with willows (clone “Tordis” ((Salix schwerinii x S. viminalis) x S. vim.)) and grassland that was established in March 2011, as reported in a former study of the authors. Two grassland swards (white clover grass (Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L.) (CG) and a diversity mixture with 32 plant species (DIV)) were proven in an intensive (3/4 cuts per year) and extensive management system (two cuts per year). Total yield (sum of three years) of AFS increased substantially in the second rotation (year four to six after establishment of the AFS). This was particularly due to a fivefold increase in woody biomass. At the same time, yields of grassland biomass decreased slightly. Biomass of CG outperformed DIV, especially in the intensive managed systems with a dry matter (DM) yield of 18 t ha−1, compared to 12.6 t ha−1. However, AFS grassland yields were always lower than yields of reference areas with grassland in pure stand. Nevertheless, lower yields are probably caused by competition effects between woody crops and grassland. Grassland yields along transects across the grassland alleyways showed a strong decrease in the border areas in all treatments. Higher grassland yields in the alley center did not compensate yield reductions in border areas. Furthermore, the botanical composition of grassland was modified in border areas with reduced legume DM contribution and increases of both grasses and forbs. Thus, the width of grassland alleys with 9 m caused strong competition effects by the willows.

Intensively managed open croplands are highly productive but often have deleterious environmental impacts. Temperate agroforestry potentially improves ecosystem functions, although comprehensive analysis is lacking. Here, we measured primary data on 47 indicators of seven ecosystem functions in croplands and 16 indicators of four ecosystem functions in grasslands to assess how alley-cropping agroforestry performs compared to open cropland and grassland. Carbon sequestration, habitat for soil biological activity, and wind erosion resistance improved for cropland agroforestry ( P  ≤ 0.03) whereas only carbon sequestration improved for grassland agroforestry ( P  < 0.01). In cropland agroforestry, soil nutrient cycling, soil greenhouse gas abatement, and water regulation did not improve, due to customary high fertilization rates. Alley-cropping agroforestry increased multifunctionality, compared to open croplands. To ameliorate the environmental benefits of agroforestry, more efficient use of nutrients is required. Financial incentives should focus on conversion of open croplands to alley-cropping agroforestry and incorporate fertilizer management.

The spatial distribution and location of crops are necessary information for agricultural planning. The free availability of optical satellites such as Landsat offers an opportunity to obtain this key information. Crop type mapping using satellite data is challenged by its reliance on ground truth data. The Integrated Administration and Control System (IACS) data, submitted by farmers in Europe for subsidy payments, provide a solution to the issue of periodic field data collection. The present study tested the performance of the IACS data in the development of a generalized predictive crop type model, which is independent of the calibration year. Using the IACS polygons as objects, the mean spectral information based on four different vegetation indices and six Landsat bands were extracted for each crop type and used as predictors in a random forest model. Two modelling methods called single-year (SY) and multiple-year (MY) calibration were tested to find out their performance in the prediction of grassland, maize, summer, and winter crops. The independent validation of SY and MY resulted in a mean overall accuracy of 71.5% and 77.3%, respectively. The field-based approach of calibration used in this study dealt with the ‘salt and pepper’ effects of the pixel-based approach.

Introduction: Yield and its stability are both vital characteristics to evaluate the viability of cropping systems. However, the current frames of field research hardly allow an accurate evaluation of short-term effect stability. Therefore, over nine German environments (three years and three locations), first crop, maize, total harvested dry biomass yield (DMY), and maize dry matter content (DMC) variability were evaluated through a risk assessment in an organically managed silage maize experiment comprising 18 cropping systems.Material and methods: The treatment factors included first crop group (pure legume, legume–cereal mixture), first crop (winter pea, hairy vetch and their mixtures with rye, control), management—incorporating first crop use and tillage (double cropping system no-till, double cropping system reduced till, double-cropped, mulched system terminated with roller-crimper, control), fertilization and mechanical weed control (yes–no), and row width (75 cm, 50 cm).Results and discussion: The first crop DMY and maize DMC had a positive relationship with its variance, whereas maize DMY and total DMY had a negative relationship. The differences in risks were governed by system (number of crops), management and first crop (group), and followed compatible patterns with what was observed for their influence on the mean of the parameters. The pedological and climatic conditions, especially near maize sowing and establishment, and therefore the length of season are crucial in double cropping and double-cropped, mulched systems. In its current state, the location in the northern region of Germany was not well suited for the studied alternative systems, whereas in the other regions (central and south), double cropping systems with reduced tillage as well as double-cropped systems with pure legume mulches may offer alternative management systems for silage maize. Further optimization of the critical sowing and establishment phase may result in more diversified options for double cropping and double-cropped, mulched systems in the future.

With the central aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, agroforestry systems have become popular because they can provide biomass for bioenergy conversion and thus help replace fossil energy. This article compares the net energy balances of three biomass conversion techniques for an agroforestry system consisting of willows and two types of grassland biomass as well as separate stands of grassland and willow. The period of investigation was the second willow rotation (4–6 years after establishment). The biomass conversion techniques included combustion of hay (CH), integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from biomass (IFBB), and anaerobic whole crop digestion (WCD). Compared to the first rotation (years 1–3), the net energy yield of the willow stands significantly increased. Nevertheless, the separate stand of willow had higher net energy yield than the agroforestry system. The IFBB technique led to an improvement in solid fuel quality through demineralization. CH and IFBB provided higher net energy yields than WCD.

There are often negative side-effects associated with the traditional (silage) maize cropping system related to the unprotected soil surface. Reducing soil disturbance could enhance system sustainability. Yet, increased weed pressure and decreased nitrogen availability, particularly in organic agriculture, may limit the implementation of alternative management methods. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted at two distinct locations to evaluate the weed control efficiency of 18 organically managed silage maize cropping systems. Examined parameters were relative weed groundcover (GCweed) and its correlation with maize dry matter yield (DMY), relative proportion of dominant weed species (DWS) and their groups by life form (DWSgroup). Treatment factors comprised first crop (FC—winter pea, hairy vetch, and their mixtures with rye, control (sole silage maize cropping system—SCS)), management—incorporating FC use and tillage (double cropping system no-till (DCS NT), double cropping system reduced till (DCS RT), double cropped, mulched system (DCMS Roll) and SCS control), fertilization, mechanical weed control and row width (75 cm and 50 cm). The variation among environments was high, but similar patterns occurred across locations: Generally low GCweed occurred (below 28%) and, therefore, typically no correlation to maize DMY was observed. The number of crops (system), system:management and occasionally management:FC (group) influenced GCweed and DWS(group). Row width had inconsistent and/or marginal effects. Results suggest differences related to the successful inclusion of DCS and DCMS into the rotation, and to the altered soil conditions, additional physical destruction by shallow tillage operations, especially in the early season, which possibly acts through soil thermal and chemical properties, as well as light conditions. DCS RT could successfully reduce GCweed below 5%, whereas DCS NT and particularly DCMS (Mix) suffered from inadequate FC management. Improvements in DCMS may comprise the use of earlier maturing legumes, especially hairy vetch varieties, further reduction/omission of the cereal companion in the mixture and/or more destructive termination of the FC.

Traditional (silage) maize production often has negative side-effects related to unprotected soil surface. There are several possibilities to enhance system sustainability through reducing soil disturbance. However, implementation may be hindered due to reduced nitrogen availability and increased weed infestation, especially in organic agriculture. A field experiment to evaluate yield potential of 18 silage maize cropping systems under organic management was conducted at three distinct locations. Examined parameters were first crop, maize and total harvested dry matter yield (DMY), and maize dry matter content (DMC). Treatment factors included first crop (FC—winter pea, hairy vetch, and their mixtures with rye, control (SCS), management—incorporating FC use and tillage (double cropping system no-till (DCS NT), double cropping system reduced till (DCS RT), double cropped, mulched system terminated with roller-crimper (DCMS Roll), SCS control), fertilization, mechanical weed control—and row width (75 cm, 50 cm). A high variation among environments occurred, but similar patterns manifested across locations: Number of crops in the rotation had a high influence, followed by management and FC. Row width had only marginal and inconsistent effect. FC mixtures generally yielded higher than pure legumes. Maize DMY in DCS, DCMS was lower than or comparable to SCS. Maize DMC were environment-specifically below acceptable range, especially under DCMS. Total harvested DMY in DCS were similar to or greater than SCS. Results suggest differences from the optimization of farming operations for one (SCS) or two crops (DCS, DCMS) with strong effects at early maize development and on the length of season. FC use and tillage factors possibly altered the soil water, temperature, and mineralization dynamics, resulting in modified maize growth. DCS RT and DCMS Pure performed with the best maize yields, improved soil protection, and tillage reduction in the silage maize part of the rotation under organic management. However, alternative management systems, especially under DCS NT and DCMS (Mix) with studied maize maturity classes are less suited, particularly in cool and wet spring conditions, because of a potentially slower development of FC, a later establishment of maize plants and therefore, a shorter growing season for the maize crop.

Alley cropping multi-rows of shrub willow hybrids and grassland is a promising temperate agroforestry practice for an environmentally sound provision of bioenergy feedstock. The effect of willows, aged 2–3 years, on two grassland mixtures (clover-grass, diversity oriented mixture) was determined at three positions along the tree-crop interface at a study site in Central Germany. Willows modified the incident light on understory along the interface. Biennial mean daily light integral at position south-west (SW) was 22 mol m−2 w−1, in the center of the alley 30 mol m−2 w−1 and at position north-east (NE) 26 mol m−2 w−1. Accordingly, soil temperature was lower at the positions SW and NE being adjacent to the willows. There was no clear pattern of the distribution of volumetric soil moisture content along the tree-crop interface in 15 cm depth, except that moisture content was highest in 35 cm depth at SW position in both years. In the early establishment phase, the diameter at breast height (DBH) of pooled inner willow rows (17 mm) was significantly different from pooled outer rows (21 mm). Direction had a significant influence on DBH in 2012, but not in 2013. The impact of willows on productivity of the two grassland mixtures was not confirmed until the third year after establishment. Dry matter yield was on par with those reported for single-cropped grassland adjacent to the agroforestry system. Sward composition of clover-grass changed along the tree-crop interface. Dry matter contribution of legumes was lower at the position SW. No remarkable impact of trees on quality parameters of grassland mixtures were found along the interface. Horizontal and vertical growth of the trees may modify the microclimate during the life-span of the alley cropping system consisting of willows and grassland. More research is needed on long-term monitoring of competitive, complementary and facilitative effects along the tree-crop interface.

Maize is grown on a large area in Germany and there is a growing concern in society about negative environmental effects related to this. The objective of the study was to test the performance of mixtures of maize and climbing beans as an alternative to monocropped maize under different site and management conditions. The effects of sowing density of maize and beans as well as the sowing time of beans on total dry matter (DM) yield and bean DM contribution to the total yield were investigated. Further, various mechanical and chemical weed control methods were tested and the resulting total DM yield was compared with that of a reference treatment (manual weeding). Hardly any consistent yield difference between maize/bean mixtures and monocropped maize occurred. The proportion of beans varied over a wide range among sites and was consistently higher when beans were sown at an early growth stage of maize. Mixtures did not suppress weeds efficiently and at two of the three sites their yield clearly declined with increasing weed coverage in the mixtures. A weed coverage of up to circa 10% may be tolerated, as the corresponding yield reduction is less than 1 t ha−1. Considering the additional effort (i.e., two sowings, high costs for bean seeds, complicated weed control) in managing such mixtures, it can be concluded that maize/bean mixtures can currently hardly be recommended as an alternative to monocropped maize for feedstock production.