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Chromatin architecture has been implicated in cell type-specific gene regulatory programs, yet how chromatin remodels during development remains to be fully elucidated. Here, by interrogating chromatin reorganization during human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) differentiation, we discover a role for the primate-specific endogenous retrotransposon human endogenous retrovirus subfamily H (HERV-H) in creating topologically associating domains (TADs) in hPSCs. Deleting these HERV-H elements eliminates their corresponding TAD boundaries and reduces the transcription of upstream genes, while de novo insertion of HERV-H elements can introduce new TAD boundaries. The ability of HERV-H to create TAD boundaries depends on high transcription, as transcriptional repression of HERV-H elements prevents the formation of boundaries. This ability is not limited to hPSCs, as these actively transcribed HERV-H elements and their corresponding TAD boundaries also appear in pluripotent stem cells from other hominids but not in more distantly related species lacking HERV-H elements. Overall, our results provide direct evidence for retrotransposons in actively shaping cell type- and species-specific chromatin architecture. Genetic deletion or transcriptional silencing of HERV-H elements in human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) eliminates nearby topologically associating domain boundaries, while de novo insertion of HERV-H elements can introduce new ones. Mutations of specific HERV-H elements can impact hPSC differentiation.

A complex interplay involving Notch- and Erbb2-mediated signalling between cardiomyocytes guides the morphogenesis of the ventricular wall. Many organs are composed of complex tissue walls that are structurally organized to optimize organ function. In particular, the ventricular myocardial wall of the heart comprises an outer compact layer that concentrically encircles the ridge-like inner trabecular layer. Although disruption in the morphogenesis of this myocardial wall can lead to various forms of congenital heart disease 1 and non-compaction cardiomyopathies 2 , it remains unclear how embryonic cardiomyocytes assemble to form ventricular wall layers of appropriate spatial dimensions and myocardial mass. Here we use advanced genetic and imaging tools in zebrafish to reveal an interplay between myocardial Notch and Erbb2 signalling that directs the spatial allocation of myocardial cells to their proper morphological positions in the ventricular wall. Although previous studies have shown that endocardial Notch signalling non-cell-autonomously promotes myocardial trabeculation through Erbb2 and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling 3 , we discover that distinct ventricular cardiomyocyte clusters exhibit myocardial Notch activity that cell-autonomously inhibits Erbb2 signalling and prevents cardiomyocyte sprouting and trabeculation. Myocardial-specific Notch inactivation leads to ventricles of reduced size and increased wall thickness because of excessive trabeculae, whereas widespread myocardial Notch activity results in ventricles of increased size with a single-cell-thick wall but no trabeculae. Notably, this myocardial Notch signalling is activated non-cell-autonomously by neighbouring Erbb2-activated cardiomyocytes that sprout and form nascent trabeculae. Thus, these findings support an interactive cellular feedback process that guides the assembly of cardiomyocytes to morphologically create the ventricular myocardial wall and more broadly provide insight into the cellular dynamics of how diverse cell lineages organize to create form.

The heart, a vital organ which is first to develop, has adapted its size, structure and function in order to accommodate the circulatory demands for a broad range of animals. Although heart development is controlled by a relatively conserved network of transcriptional/chromatin regulators, how the human heart has evolved species-specific features to maintain adequate cardiac output and function remains to be defined. Here, we show through comparative epigenomic analysis the identification of enhancers and promoters that have gained activity in humans during cardiogenesis. These cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are associated with genes involved in heart development and function, and may account for species-specific differences between human and mouse hearts. Supporting these findings, genetic variants that are associated with human cardiac phenotypic/disease traits, particularly those differing between human and mouse, are enriched in human-gained CREs. During early stages of human cardiogenesis, these CREs are also gained within genomic loci of transcriptional regulators, potentially expanding their role in human heart development. In particular, we discovered that gained enhancers in the locus of the early human developmental regulator are selectively accessible within a subpopulation of mesoderm cells which exhibits cardiogenic potential, thus possibly extending the function of beyond its conserved left-right asymmetry role. Genetic deletion of these enhancers identified a human gained enhancer that was required for not only and early cardiac gene expression at the mesoderm stage but also cardiomyocyte differentiation. Overall, our results illuminate how human gained CREs may contribute to human-specific cardiac attributes, and provide insight into how transcriptional regulators may gain cardiac developmental roles through the evolutionary acquisition of enhancers.

A complex interplay involving Notch- and Erbb2-mediated signalling between cardiomyocytes guides the morphogenesis of the ventricular wall.

Candida albicans hyphae can reach enormous lengths, precluding their internalization by phagocytes. Nevertheless, macrophages engulf a portion of the hypha, generating incompletely sealed tubular phagosomes. These frustrated phagosomes are stabilized by a thick cuff of F-actin that polymerizes in response to non-canonical activation of integrins by fungal glycan. Despite their continuity, the surface and invaginating phagosomal membranes retain a strikingly distinct lipid composition. PtdIns(4,5)P2 is present at the plasmalemma but is not detectable in the phagosomal membrane, while PtdIns(3)P and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 co-exist in the phagosomes yet are absent from the surface membrane. Moreover, endo-lysosomal proteins are present only in the phagosomal membrane. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching revealed the presence of a diffusion barrier that maintains the identity of the open tubular phagosome separate from the plasmalemma. Formation of this barrier depends on Syk, Pyk2/Fak and formin-dependent actin assembly. Antimicrobial mechanisms can thereby be deployed, limiting the growth of the hyphae. Billions of microorganisms live on, and in, the human body. Known as the human microbiome, most of these microscopic hitchhikers are harmless. But, for people with a compromised immune system, common species can sometimes cause disease. For example, the yeast Candida albicans, which colonises between 30 and 70% of the population, is normally harmless, but can switch to a disease-causing version that makes branching structures called hyphae. These hyphae grow fast, piercing and damaging the tissues around them. Immune cells called macrophages usually engulf invading microbes. These cells recognise sugars on the outside of C. albicans, and respond by wrapping their membranes around the yeast, drawing the microorganism in, and sealing it into closed structures called phagosomes. Then, the macrophages fill the phagosomes with acid, enzymes and destructive chemicals, which breaks the yeast down. Yet, C. albicans hyphae grow larger than macrophages, making them difficult to control. Maxson et al. have now tracked the immune response revealing how macrophages try to control large hyphae. The immune cells were quick to engulf C. albicans in its normal yeast form, but the response slowed down in the presence of hyphae. Electron microscopy revealed that the large structures were only partly taken in. Rather than form a closed phagosome, the macrophages made a cuff around the middle of the hypha, leaving the rest hanging out. The process starts with a receptor called CR3, which detects sugars on the outside of the hyphae. CR3 is a type of integrin, a molecule that sends signals from the surface to the inside of the immune cell. A network of filaments called actin assemble around the hypha, squeezing the membrane tight. The macrophage then deploys free radicals and other damaging chemicals inside the closed space. The seal is not perfect, and some molecules do leak out, but the effect slows the growth of the yeast. When a phagosome cannot engulf an invading microbe, a state that is referred to as being “frustrated”, the leaking of damaging chemicals can harm healthy tissues and lead to inflammation and disease. These findings reveal that macrophages do at least try to form a complete seal before releasing their cocktail of chemicals. Understanding how the immune system handles this situation could open the way for new treatments for C. albicans infections, and possibly similar diseases related to “frustrated engulfment” (such as asbestos exposure, where asbestos fibers are also too large to engulf). However, one next step will be to find out what happens to partly engulfed hyphae, and how this differs from the fate of fully engulfed yeast.

For the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans , metabolic flexibility and the ability to transition between yeast and filamentous growth states are key virulence traits that enable disease in the host. These traits are particularly important during the interaction of C. albicans with macrophages, where the fungus must utilize multiple alternative carbon sources to survive after being phagocytosed, and filamentation is coupled to fungal escape and immune cell death. Here, we employed functional genomic screening of conditional-expression mutants covering >50% of the C. albicans genome to identify genes selectively required for filamentation inside macrophages. Through manual and machine learning-based image analyses, we uncovered a role for the mitochondrial ribosome, respiration, and the SNF1 AMP-activated kinase complex in governing filamentous growth within the phagosome, suggesting that C. albicans relies on respiration to evade the antifungal activities of macrophages. We demonstrate that downregulating the expression of these genes reduces ATP levels and impedes filamentation as well as growth under monoculture conditions in medium lacking glucose. In co-culture with physiological glucose concentration, downregulation of genes involved in mitochondrial function and respiration prevented C. albicans from expanding within the phagosome, escaping, and inducing immune cell death. Together, our work provides new insights into the impact of metabolism on the interaction between C. albicans and macrophages, highlighting respiration and the SNF1 AMP-activated kinase as key effectors of C. albicans metabolic flexibility and filamentation within phagocytes. Candida albicans is a leading human fungal pathogen that often causes life-threatening infections in immunocompromised individuals. The ability of C. albicans to transition between yeast and filamentous forms is key to its virulence, and this occurs in response to many host-relevant cues, including engulfment by host macrophages. While previous efforts identified C. albicans genes required for filamentation in other conditions, the genes important for this morphological transition upon internalization by macrophages remained largely enigmatic. Here, we employed a functional genomic approach to identify genes that enable C. albicans filamentation within macrophages and uncovered a role for the mitochondrial ribosome, respiration, and the SNF1 AMP-activated kinase complex. Additionally, we showed that glucose uptake and glycolysis by macrophages support C. albicans filamentation. This work provides insights into the metabolic dueling that occurs during the interaction of C. albicans with macrophages and identifies vulnerabilities in C. albicans that could serve as promising therapeutic targets.

Despite their low abundance, phosphoinositides play a central role in membrane traffic and signalling. PtdIns(3,4,5)P 3 and PtdIns(3,4)P 2 are uniquely important, as they promote cell growth, survival and migration. Pathogenic organisms have developed means to subvert phosphoinositide metabolism to promote successful infection and their survival in host organisms. We demonstrate that PtdIns(3,4)P 2 is a major product generated in host cells by the effectors of the enteropathogenic bacteria Salmonella and Shigella . Pharmacological, gene silencing and heterologous expression experiments revealed that, remarkably, the biosynthesis of PtdIns(3,4)P 2 occurs independently of phosphoinositide 3-kinases. Instead, we found that the Salmonella effector SopB, heretofore believed to be a phosphatase, generates PtdIns(3,4)P 2 de novo via a phosphotransferase/phosphoisomerase mechanism. Recombinant SopB is capable of generating PtdIns(3,4,5)P 3 and PtdIns(3,4)P 2 from PtdIns(4,5)P 2 in a cell-free system. Through a remarkable instance of convergent evolution, bacterial effectors acquired the ability to synthesize 3-phosphorylated phosphoinositides by an ATP- and kinase-independent mechanism, thereby subverting host signalling to gain entry and even provoke oncogenic transformation. Walpole et al. show that the Salmonella effector SopB generates phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate de novo via a phosphotransferase mechanism, independently of phosphoinositide 3-kinases and ATP.