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In the domain of energy consumption in restaurant-type commercial buildings, traditional energy audits tend to concentrate mainly on electrical loads, often neglecting the specifics of the restaurant sector, especially regarding liquified petroleum gas fuel consumption. This research employs a comprehensive energy audit framework specifically designed for the commercial building restaurant sector. Using energy data from 130 restaurants, we computed the building energy index that ranged in between 650 and 1000 kWh/m2/year. Using linear regression, we assessed the relationship between building energy index and restaurant area, uncovering a low R2 value, suggesting the unsuitability of the building energy index as an exclusive measure for restaurants. Concurrently, our detailed comparative study showed that liquified petroleum gas-fueled equipment uses about 38% more energy than electric fueled equipment but is 0.5% cheaper and significantly less polluting. Investigating renewable energy potentials, we found solar PV application as a viable option for restaurants. The results showed that solar PV installation could produce approximately 11,064,898 kWh, translating to utility savings of RM 7,381,929 and reductions of 7,108,327 kgCO2, 68,959 kgSO2, and 31,823 kgCO emissions. Conclusively, our findings underline the need for a diversified energy assessment in restaurants and the tangible benefits of renewable energy integration.

Commercial buildings in Malaysia contribute to 35% of the total electricity demand. During the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the global economy faced a challenging situation that forced many businesses to shut down. However, fast-food restaurants with drive-through features managed to get through this pandemic phase without much effect from the economic impact. Since COVID-19, the operational guidelines have changed for restaurants. However, from an energy perspective, fast–food restaurants are high energy consumers in the retail sector. This paper analyses the load profile of fast-food restaurants and the potential strategies that can be adopted in a free-standing fast-food restaurant. From analysis, it is calculated that a total of RM 97,365.9 of utility savings can be obtained in a year. A total of 91,392.1 kg CO2, 881.8 kg SO2 and 385.5 kg CO pollutant emissions can be reduced. The BEI for the restaurant was reduced to 856.4 kWh/m2/year. By converting to energy-saving strategies, the return on investment was 27.3% and 3.7 years, which is a very short period of time and is attractive for businesses of this nature.

To measure the level of energy performance of a building, there are several categories of energy consumption to be calculated such as oil, natural gas and electricity. In order to significantly minimise the Greenhouse gas emission in an office, it is important to tap into the positive progress of energy efficiency of equipment which contributes to total energy performance of a building. Consequently, to enable accurate building energy consumption of a building, energy modelling method is applied to identify total consumption and cost of energy usage with effects of carbon emission. Hence, this will help to reduce the costing of energy inside building with differences of efficiency options. Therefore, this paper aims to analyse an office building in terms of the level of energy consumption and carbon emission as a case study. The first objective is to identify the amount of energy consumption and carbon emission inside the building using the simulation software. Secondly, to identify the differences between the data recorded through simulation software and physical data. Finally, to identify solutions to decrease the carbon emission by applying measures towards reducing energy consumption inside the building.

Power swings are known to occur due to the presence of sudden disturbances in the power network. The oscillation of power results in impedance swaying and causes the impedance trajectory to swing back and forth within the distance relay operating characteristics which may lead to unintended relay operation. Ideally, the distance relays in transmission system should not trip unexpectedly during dynamic system conditions such as stable power swings. Commonly, the relay settings are customized to prevent the impedance swing in order to avoid nuisance tripping. However, as the electrical system evolves, its complexity increases in line with the increasing risk of swing severity which may trigger unwanted relay operations. In recent times, the integration of inverter driven generation has been increasing. The penetration of large scale renewable generation into transmission network and its impact to the power swing characteristics has yet to be established. Therefore, this research will investigate the severity of power swing, critical clearing time of synchronous generator and the risk of distance relay mal-operation in the presence of large solar PV generator in transmission system. It is demonstrated in this research that the severity of swing increases and the critical clearing time of the synchronous machine decreases in the presence of inverter driven generation (solar PV generator) when compared to an equivalent synchronous machine. Various sensitivity studies have been conducted and a suitable preventive measure has been proposed to reduce the risk of distance relay mal-operation during power swing. These studies are important to reduce the risk of distance relay malfunction so that the security of the future grid can be strengthened.