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Neural mechanisms of aggression and violence are often studied in the laboratory by means of animal models. A multitude of such models were developed over the last decades, which, however, were rarely if ever compared systematically from a psychopathological perspective. By overviewing the main models, we show here that the classical ones exploited the natural tendency of animals to defend their territory, to fight for social rank, to defend themselves from imminent dangers and to defend their pups. All these forms of aggression are functional and adaptive; consequently, not necessarily appropriate for modeling non-natural states, e.g., aggression-related psychopathologies. A number of more psychopathology-oriented models were also developed over the last two decades, which were based on the etiological factors of aggression-related mental disorders. When animals were exposed to such factors, their aggressiveness suffered durable changes, which were deviant in the meaning that they broke the evolutionarily conserved rules that minimize the dangers associated with aggression. Changes in aggression were associated with a series of disfunctions that affected other domains of functioning, like with aggression-related disorders where aggression is just one of the symptoms. The comparative overview of such models suggests that while the approach still suffers from a series of deficits, they hold the important potential of extending our knowledge on aggression control over the pathological domain of this behavior.

Key Points The effects of stress on social behaviour depend on the timing, the duration and the type of stress exposure. Social withdrawal and aggression are a typical consequence of experiencing, or having experienced, high and persistent stress levels. From a developmental perspective, early stressors impose an increasing pattern of dysfunctional social behaviour, progressing from asociality (elicited by prenatal stressors) to hostility (by postnatal stressors) and to antisociality (by stressors during juvenility). In humans, stress can also elicit prosocial behaviours, particularly towards ingroup members. Individual differences in the effect of stress in social behaviours are partly explained by certain gene polymorphisms (for example, the monoamine oxidase A ( MAOA ) gene). Glucocorticoids mediate, at least in part, the effects of stress on social behaviours. Monoamines, social neuropeptides, the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) system, cell adhesion molecules and epigenetic mechanisms are implicated in the translation of stress effects in social behaviours. Positive social interactions can protect individuals from the adverse effects of stress. Early-life stress can contribute to predispositions to antisocial behaviour in adulthood. Similarly, acute or chronic stress during adulthood can alter our social behaviour. Sandi and Haller emphasize the importance of timing of stress for its effects on social behaviour and describe current understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Stress often affects our social lives. When undergoing high-level or persistent stress, individuals frequently retract from social interactions and become irritable and hostile. Predisposition to antisocial behaviours — including social detachment and violence — is also modulated by early life adversity; however, the effects of early life stress depend on the timing of exposure and genetic factors. Research in animals and humans has revealed some of the structural, functional and molecular changes in the brain that underlie the effects of stress on social behaviour. Findings in this emerging field will have implications both for the clinic and for society.

Endocannabinoids were implicated in a variety of pathological conditions including anxiety and are considered promising new targets for anxiolytic drug development. The optimism concerning the potentials of this system for anxiolysis is probably justified. However, the complexity of the mechanisms affected by endocannabinoids, and discrepant findings obtained with various experimental approaches makes the interpretation of research results difficult. Here, we review the anxiety-related effects of the three main interventions used to study the endocannabinoid system: pharmacological agents active at endocannabinoid-binding sites present on both the cell membrane and in the cytoplasm, genetic manipulations targeting cannabinoid receptors, and function-enhancers represented by inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation and transport. Binding-site ligands provide inconsistent findings probably because they activate a multitude of mechanisms concomitantly. More robust findings were obtained with genetic manipulations and particularly with function enhancers, which heighten ongoing endocannabinoid activation rather than affecting all mechanisms indiscriminately. The enhancement of ongoing activity appears to ameliorate stress-induced anxiety without consistent effects on anxiety in general. Limited evidence suggests that this effect is achieved by promoting active coping styles in critical situations. These findings suggest that the functional enhancement of endocannabinoid signaling is a promising drug development target for stress-related anxiety disorders.

Public perception contrasts scientific findings on the depression-related effects of cannabis. However, earlier studies were performed when cannabis was predominantly illegal, its production was mostly uncontrolled, and the idea of medical cannabis was incipient only. We hypothesized that recent changes in attitudes and legislations may have favorably affected research. In addition, publication bias against cannabis may have also decreased. To investigate this hypothesis, we conducted a review of research studies published over the last three years. We found 156 relevant research articles. In most cross-sectional studies, depression was higher in those who consumed cannabis than in those who did not. An increase in cannabis consumption was typically followed by an increase in depression, whereas withdrawal from cannabis ameliorated depression in most cases. Although medical cannabis reduced depression in most studies, none of these were placebo-controlled. In clinical studies published in the same period, the placebo also ameliorated depression and, in addition, the average effect size of the placebo was larger than the average effect size of medical cannabis. We also investigated the plausibility of the antidepressant effects of cannabis by reviewing molecular and pharmacological studies. Taken together, the reviewed findings do not support the antidepressant effects of herbal cannabis.

The author provides an overview of the role of criminal psychology education in law enforcement education. A szerző áttekintést nyújt a kriminálpszichológia oktatás szerepéről a rendészeti oktatásban.

Escalated or abnormal aggression induced by early adverse experiences is a growing issue of social concern and urges the development of effective treatment strategies. Here we report that synergistic interactions between psychosocial and biological factors specifically ameliorate escalated aggression induced by early adverse experiences. Rats reared in isolation from weaning until early adulthood showed abnormal forms of aggression and social deficits that were temporarily ameliorated by re-socialization, but aggression again escalated in a novel environment. We demonstrate that when re-socialization was combined with the antidepressant fluoxetine, which has been shown to reactivate juvenile-like state of plasticity, escalated aggression was greatly attenuated, while neither treatment alone was effective. Early isolation induced a permanent, re-socialization-resistant reduction in Bdnf expression in the amygdala and the infralimbic cortex. Only the combined treatment of fluoxetine and re-socialization was able to recover Bdnf expression via epigenetic regulation. Moreover, the behavior improvement after the combined treatment was dependent on TrkB activity. Combined treatment specifically strengthened the input from the ventral hippocampus to the mPFC, suggesting that this pathway is an important mediator of the beneficial behavioral effects of the combined psychosocial and pharmacological treatment of abnormal aggression. Our findings suggest that synergy between pharmacological induction of plasticity and psychosocial rehabilitation could enhance the efficacy of therapies for pathological aggression.

Learning and memory are important in everyday life as well as in pathological conditions. The median raphe region (MRR) contributes to memory formation; however, its precise role and the neurotransmitters involved have yet to be elucidated. To address this issue, we stimulated the MRR neurons of mice by chemogenetic technique and studied them in the operant conditioning and active avoidance tests. The virus carrier infected a variety of neuron types including both GABAergic and glutamatergic ones. Behavior was not influenced by stimulation. We hypothesize that the lack of effect was due to opposing effects exerted via GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons. Therefore, next we used VGAT-Cre mice that allowed the specific manipulation of MRR-GABAergic neurons. The stimulation did not affect behavior in the learning phase of the operant conditioning task, but increased reward preference and total responses when operant contingencies were reversed. The enhanced responsiveness might be a proclivity to impulsive behavior. Stimulation facilitated learning in the active avoidance test but did not affect reversal learning in this paradigm. Our findings suggest that MRR-GABAergic neurons are involved in both learning and reversal learning, but the type of learning that is affected depends on the task.

In principle, new psychoactive substances (NPSs) are produced to circumvent drug regulations. However, the mixed success of regulatory efforts suggests that the dynamics of marketing is incompletely understood. To address this issue, we conducted a comprehensive study on the marketing of all synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones present in Hungary over ten years. Market evaluation was based on drug seizure data and chemical analyses provided by the Hungarian Institute for Forensic Sciences. Over ten years, 18 synthetic cannabinoids and 11 cathinones were identified. Total seizure counts were 22,906 and 10,273, respectively. When new synthetic cannabinoids emerged, seizures increased exponentially, but rapidly declined after their banning. In parallel, new synthetic cannabinoids emerged on the market. The systematic monitoring of local legislation allowed large sales between market introduction and legal control. Cathinones were also marketed in successive waves, but trading intensity was not associated with local regulations. Sales remained low throughout, likely because the risks involved by the temporal mismatch between marketing and legal control. One can hypothesize that marketing was driven by general trends in EU regulations or by measures taken by large countries. Our findings imply the existence of two different strategies for NPS marketing. The choice between the two may depend on multiple factors from the availability of skills required by rapid marketing adjustments to cost/benefit evaluations for various market segments. Studying NPS market strategies in neighboring and distant EU countries may help analyzing and predicting market events. •18 new synthetic cannabinoids and 11 cathinones emerged in Hungary over 10 years.•Both categories of compounds were marketed in waves.•Shift to new synthetic cannabinoids was triggered by newly introduced regulations.•Cathinone marketing did not follow local regulations.•Traffickers followed two different marketing strategies in Hungary.

Background/Objectives: Echinacea extracts with unique alkamide profiles (EP107™) have been shown to affect upper respiratory tract infections and reduce anxiety in both animals and humans. However, a recent study found that a similar extract did not reduce anxiety more than a placebo, although it did enhance well-being and produced antidepressant-like effects. We hypothesized that the discrepancy arose from the differences in the anxiety assessment methods used. The study that observed no effects used the Clinically Useful Anxiety Outcome Scale, which focuses on physical symptoms, while earlier studies used the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, which focuses on psychic symptoms. Methods: To investigate the influence of the anxiety measure on the detectability of anxiolytic effects, we examined the effects of Echinacea EP107TM using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale–anxiety subscale (HADS-A), which focuses on psychic symptoms, and the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), most items of which involve physical symptoms. The study was placebo-controlled, double-blind, and multicenter. Results: The extract significantly alleviated anxiety compared to placebo when measured with HADS-A. HAM-A total scores did not show significant treatment effects. However, Echinacea was superior to placebo in three psychic anxiety items on the HAM-A. Conclusions: These findings suggest that Echinacea EP107TM reduces psychic anxiety without affecting somatic symptoms. This indicates that the extract may be useful in mild or early-phase anxiety when somatic symptoms are not prominent.

The Department of Criminal Psychology and its Research Workshop (Faculty of Law Enforcement at the National University of Public Service) organized this year a conference on criminal profiling. The speakers of the conference were recruited partly from theoretical partly from practical investigative experts, who could be both customers and beneficiaries of profiling services. The aim of the conference was to initiate a dialogue, which may contribute to the renewal of the Hungarian profiling activity. The Belügyi Szemle agreed to publish the printed versions of the lectures in this and the next issue. In this first study, we examine criminal profiling from a broad perspective to provide some basis for the following studies elaborating particular issues. Folyó év őszén a Nemzeti Közszolgálati Egyetem (NKE) Rendészettudományi Kar Kriminálpszichológia Tanszéke és Kutatóműhelye egy konferenciát szervezett, amely a bűnözői profilalkotás témája köré szerveződött. A konferencia előadói részben a kérdéskör elméleti szakemberei közül verbuválódtak, részben azok közül a gyakorlati – nyomozati – szakemberek köréből, akik egy profilalkotási folyamatnak a megrendelői és egyben haszonélvezői lehetnének. A konferencia célja egy olyan párbeszéd kezdeményezése volt, amely párbeszéd nélkül a résztvevők egyöntetű véleménye szerint a magyar profilozási tevékenység nem újítható meg. A Belügyi Szemle jelen és következő lapszámában publikálja az előadások tanulmánnyá konvertált változatait. Ebben a tanulmányban tág perspektívában vizsgáljuk meg a kérdést, mintegy alapot teremtve a következő, részletkérdéseket kifejtő tanulmányok számára.