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Chen Zhixu (陳致虛), a prominent Taoist master of the Yuan Dynasty, significantly contributed to aspects such as the creation of Taoist genealogy and the theoretical interpretation of Neidan (内丹 internal alchemy studies). Astronomy of different aspects served as an important intellectual resource for him. Chen Zhixu not only explained the correlative cosmological model in traditional internal alchemy theories, but also introduced systematic calendrical knowledge to broaden the astronomical foundation of his theoretical propositions, thereby strengthening the connection between internal alchemy practices and astronomical research. The model of the cosmic structure based on the Hun Tian theory (渾天說 the Spherical Heaven Theory, a major ancient Chinese cosmological theory that regards the sky as a sphere and encloses the earth in it) that he constructed is not merely a correlative illustration but also laid a solid mathematical foundation for his theoretical system. Nonetheless, Chen Zhixu’s methodological exposition of the hierarchy between internal alchemy practices and astronomical research reveals that his application of astronomical knowledge was selective and ultimately subordinated to, and constrained by, his Taoist transcendental goals. Therefore, Chen Zhixu’s work, to some extent, reveals a structured relationship between Taoism cultivation practices and ancient Chinese science.

The spread of Taoism to the Western Regions marked the movement of Central Plains culture to the frontier, demonstrating its influence on local society. During the Han Dynasty, Central Plains culture had reached the Western Regions. With the deification of Laozi and his becoming the founder of Taoism, the story “Laozi converting the barbarians” (Laozi huahu 老子化胡), which claimed that Laozi journeyed to the west and taught the Hu people, provided the impetus for the spread of Taoism to the Western Regions. The Tang imperial family venerated Laozi and regarded Taoism as the state religion. Laozi belief, including the veneration of the man himself, his writings, his stories, and the precepts claimed to be related to him, was also used to assist in the Tang Dynasty’s governance of the Western Regions. Following the Tang Dynasty’s decline, the Central Plains’ influence receded from the Western Regions. However, due to the relaxed religious environment in the Western Regions, Taoism, which was representative of Central Plains culture, still survived there. Moreover, Taoism attempted to incorporate Islam in the Western Regions into its divine system by huahu, which might be related to the early history of exchange between the two religions.

This article examines the historical background of “Laozi huahu 老子化胡” (Laozi converting the barbarians) and investigates its generation mode and constituent elements. It also discusses and reflects on issues such as the origin of “huahu” and Laozi’s deification. The origin of “Laozi huahu” has little relationship to issues such as the divine system in the Han dynasty and Laozi’s deification. Its elements are rooted in Chinese secular ideological resources. The story of “heroes moving across borders” during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, along with the notion of Laozi as the universal teacher for disciples of various schools, gave birth to the saying. An analysis of the historical background suggests that the origin of “huahu” had likely gone through a long evolutionary process, including an undocumented period where it was transmitted orally as a legend.