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This report on voice and agency, which builds on the 2012 World Development Report, focuses on several areas key to women's empowerment: freedom from violence, control over sexual and reproductive health and rights, ownership and control of land and housing, and voice and collective action. It explores the power of social norms in dictating how men and women can and cannot behave, deterring women from owning property or working even where laws permit, for example, because those who do become outcasts. The report distills vast data and hundreds of studies to shed new light on constraints facing women and girls worldwide, from epidemic levels of gender-based violence to biased laws and norms that prevent them from owning property, working, and making decisions about their own lives. It highlights promising reforms and interventions from around the world and lays out an urgent agenda for governments, civil society, development agencies, and other stakeholders. Among its keys findings: girls with little or no education are far more likely to be married as children, suffer domestic violence, live in poverty, and lack a say over household spending or their own health care than better-educated peers, which harms them, their children, and communities.

It is perhaps surprising that Post Keynesians have paid little attention to the household as an economic institution. Once people move out of the public sphere and into the household, their actions as economic agents are neglected by Post Keynesian economics. Households house the \"spirits\" of Post Keynesian economic agents, spirits of the actors who have such a real presence in the macroeconomy. In this paper a preliminary attempt is made to rectify the neglect of the household by Post Keynesian economics by constructing a Post Keynesian explanation of the economic dynamics of households. This paper does not claim to have uncovered new aspects of household behavior. The ideas presented have been developed by a range of economists over the last few years, although their application to the household has been piecemeal. However, by assembling these ideas and organizing them in a manner consistent with Post Keynesian economic analysis, this paper has opened up the possibility of a substantive research agenda rooted in economic analysis. It is suggested that the agenda is crucial to the development of the Post Keynesian paradigm.

This paper examines the influence of gender inequality on poverty among Syrian refugees in Jordanbetween 2013 and 2018. Two waves of Home-Visit surveys, collected by the United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees, are analyzed to track the evolution of poverty among Syrian refugees in Jordan. To compare changes inpoverty between female- and male-headed households, the paper uses relative comparisons of deciles in theexpenditure distribution and quantile regressions. The analysis adjusts the poverty measure for economies of scaleas the cost per person of maintaining a given standard of living may fall as household size rises. The findings showthat the spending distribution has shifted over time, negatively affecting female-headed households. In 2013,female-headed households below the median had lower expenditure than male-headed households. In 2018, thispattern occurs in all deciles. The findings also show small differences between poverty rates of female- and male-headedhouseholds whether the poverty measure is adjusted for economies of scale or not. Regardless of the povertymeasure, the poverty gender gap has increased over time, with female-headed households experiencing poverty moreintensely. Female single caregivers remain at the most risk of falling into poverty when compared with other types ofhouseholds and over time. This approach can help policy makers design more effective programs of assistance thatrespond to gender-based differences in vulnerability to poverty and find durable solutions for displaced populations.

Little is known about how gender inequality influences poverty rates of forcibly displaced people. This paper uses a nationally representative survey to analyze poverty among internally displaced people and non-displaced people in Somalia. More than half of internally displaced people’s households and 47 percent of non-displaced people’s households are female headed. Although poverty rates are higher among internally displaced people than non-displaced people (77 versus 66 percent), male-headed households are poorer than female-headed ones among both groups. Extending the analysis beyond headship to demographic characteristics and by the gender and number of earners provides a more nuanced picture. Demographic characteristics are strongly associated with poverty rates for internally displaced people but not for non-displaced people. Having more income earners reduces poverty risk for all households. For internally displaced people’s households, the largest decrease in poverty risk is associated with having more female earners, while having more male earners is associated with the lowest poverty for nondisplaced people’s households. The analysis highlights that poverty reduction policies and programs must cover all households and lift barriers to women’s economic opportunities. Programs that respond to women’s care responsibilities and address barriers to women’s economic opportunities are especially important for internally displaced people.

Intimate partner violence is the most common form of violence against women in conflict and non-conflict settings, but in conflict settings it often receives less attention than other forms of gender-based violence, such as conflict-related sexual violence. Using data from the 2008 and 2013 Domestic Violence module of the Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey spatially linked to the Boko Haram actor file of the Armed Conflict Location and Events Database, this paper employs a kernel-based difference-in-difference model to examine the effect of the Boko Haram insurgency on women's experience of physical and sexual intimate partner violence. It also examines the effect of the Boko Haram insurgency on women's experience of controlling behavior from a husband or partner, women's autonomy in household decision making, and their control over their own earnings. The paper finds that the Boko Haram insurgency is associated with slower progress toward preventing and eliminating women's experiences of physical and sexual intimate partner violence. Controlling behaviors from husbands/partners and reductions in women's autonomy in household decision making are heightened in locations that are impacted by the Boko Haram insurgency, indicating that the Boko Haram insurgency adversely affects women's agency and exacerbates behaviors that are often precursors to intimate partner violence.