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Disease susceptibility and resistance are important factors for the conservation of endangered species, including elephants. We analyzed pathology data from 26 zoos and report that Asian elephants have increased neoplasia and malignancy prevalence compared with African bush elephants. This is consistent with observed higher susceptibility to tuberculosis and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in Asian elephants. To investigate genetic mechanisms underlying disease resistance, including differential responses between species, among other elephant traits, we sequenced multiple elephant genomes. We report a draft assembly for an Asian elephant, and defined 862 and 1,017 conserved potential regulatory elements in Asian and African bush elephants, respectively. In the genomes of both elephant species, conserved elements were significantly enriched with genes differentially expressed between the species. In Asian elephants, these putative regulatory regions were involved in immunity pathways including tumor-necrosis factor, which plays an important role in EEHV response. Genomic sequences of African bush, forest, and Asian elephant genomes revealed extensive sequence conservation at TP53 retrogene loci across three species, which may be related to TP53 functionality in elephant cancer resistance. Positive selection scans revealed outlier genes related to additional elephant traits. Our study suggests that gene regulation plays an important role in the differential inflammatory response of Asian and African elephants, leading to increased infectious disease and cancer susceptibility in Asian elephants. These genomic discoveries can inform future functional and translational studies aimed at identifying effective treatment approaches for ill elephants, which may improve conservation.

Chimerism is a widespread phenomenon across the tree of life. It is defined as a multicellular organism composed of cells from other genetically distinct entities. This ability to ‘tolerate’ non-self cells may be linked to susceptibility to diseases like cancer. Here we test whether chimerism is associated with cancers across obligately multicellular organisms in the tree of life. We classified 12 obligately multicellular taxa from lowest to highest chimerism levels based on the existing literature on the presence of chimerism in these species. We then tested for associations of chimerism with tumour invasiveness, neoplasia (benign or malignant) prevalence and malignancy prevalence in 11 terrestrial mammalian species. We found that taxa with higher levels of chimerism have higher tumour invasiveness, though there was no association between malignancy or neoplasia and chimerism among mammals. This suggests that there may be an important biological relationship between chimerism and susceptibility to tissue invasion by cancerous cells. Studying chimerism might help us identify mechanisms underlying invasive cancers and also could provide insights into the detection and management of emerging transmissible cancers.

Birds have higher plasma glucose concentrations but lower cancer prevalence than other vertebrates. However, this inverse relationship between glucose and cancer may not hold within vertebrate groups. Given that diet affects blood sugar levels, and carnivores have higher cancer risk than herbivores, we also examined whether diet correlates with plasma glucose concentrations. We collected diet, mean plasma glucose concentration, and neoplasia data for up to 273 vertebrate species from existing databases. Across vertebrates, mean plasma glucose concentration negatively correlated with cancer prevalence, but that was mostly driven by differences in mean plasma glucose concentration and cancer prevalence between birds, mammals, and reptiles. Mean plasma glucose concentration was not correlated with diet across vertebrates nor with cancer prevalence within birds, mammals, or reptiles. Primary carnivores had higher neoplasia prevalence than herbivores when controlling for domestication. A hypothetical explanation for our results may be the evolutionary loss or downregulation of genes related to insulin-mediated glucose import in bird cells. This may have led to higher mean plasma glucose concentration, lower intracellular glucose concentrations in the form of glycogen, and production of fewer reactive oxygen species and inflammatory cytokines, potentially contributing to lower neoplasia prevalence in extant birds compared to mammals and reptiles. Factors controlling cancer and neoplasia prevalence across species are unclear. Here, the authors investigate the impact of diet and plasma glucose levels across 273 vertebrate species, finding no association between glucose levels and cancer within birds, mammals, or reptiles.

Lesser hedgehog tenrecs (Echinops telfairi) are small, nocturnal insectivores from Madagascar that exhibit hibernation and brief torpor bouts. While multiple studies have investigated torpor physiology, no studies have focused on torpor in tenrecs maintained under human care or their recommended husbandry. We surveyed 96 institutions (71.9% response rate) housing 172 tenrecs to assess husbandry, torpor, handling, and associated weight changes. Most institutions reported that torpor occurred annually, typically between October and April, and lasted approximately 5–6 months. Weight distributions differed significantly pre- versus post-torpor, with females and males losing 34.4 g and 20.9 g on average, respectively. Females were heavier than males before and after torpor, the first report of a sex-based weight difference in this species. Most institutions used tenrecs as ambassador animals, and approximately half continued educational programming during torpor. Tenrecs handled more frequently during torpor tended to gain more weight, likely due to increased energy expenditure and compensatory feeding. Tenrecs entered torpor regardless of daylight, temperature, or humidity, with no significant husbandry differences between torpor- and non-torpor-reporting institutions. Torpor is a critical physiological adaptation supporting energy conservation and species survival. Its expression should be supported through appropriate environmental conditions, diet, minimal disturbance, and monitoring.

Photobiomodulation therapy, also termed as low‐level laser therapy, is commonly used as an adjunctive therapy for various medical conditions in veterinary practice. The ACTIVet PRO low‐level laser has been used for treatment of various nondomestic species, yet the effects of dermal attributes such as pigment, feathers, or scales have not been evaluated. The effects of low‐level laser therapy with the ACTIVet PRO have been investigated in laboratory animals, including a study in rats that evaluated the passage of laser light through the skin in postmortem samples. The objective of this study was to measure the power of a low‐level laser (ACTIVet PRO) after penetration through dermal tissue (∼1 mm thickness) in a variety of postmortem animal tissue. This study sought to determine the impact of fur, feathers, scales, and different pigments on the ability of the laser to penetrate. Frozen and thawed skin tissue samples from various species were placed inside a light restricted laser box and exposed to a preprogrammed laser level from a Multi Radiance ACTIVet PRO photobiomodulation (PBM) device, with a power meter to measure the light penetration through the tissue samples. Light penetration measurements via power output measurements (mW) were recorded at 7 time points (range, 1–150 sec). A Friedman test was performed to evaluate the difference of the mean tissue penetration by each species at each time point. Lighter colored specimens had higher power readings than darker colored or pigmented samples, and feathers appeared to inhibit the laser, showing minimal to no power readings on bird skin covered in covert and down feathers. There was statistically significant mean tissue penetration for all time points between the rabbit and green sea turtle ( p = 0.0046), the red‐tailed hawk and green iguana ( p = 0.0046), and the red‐tailed hawk and green sea turtle ( p = 0.000034). Overall findings found that certain skin coverings, such as feathers, appear to inhibit passage of laser light through tissue to the photo meter. Darker pigmented areas of tissue appeared to absorb the laser light, which also did not allow light passage through the tissue to the photo meter. All of this illustrates that there are differences in tissue penetration between different animal species, at least in postmortem tissues. This could necessitate adjustment of machine settings for therapeutic effect in different species, though further studies would be warranted to determine the extent to which this would be necessary. Additional studies evaluating biologically active tissues would be needed as a next step, as photobiomodulation has an effect at the cellular level and the exact amount of medical benefit is not measurable in skin samples that are separate from a living organism.

Acupuncture has been used extensively in domestic animal medicine to treat a variety of medical conditions and diseases as an adjunct or primary therapy. Exotic animals are becoming increasingly common as pets. Owners are expecting therapies for these non-domestic animals to be similar to those available to their other domestic pets. Additionally, zoological and aquatic facilities provide medical care for the entire lives of the animals that are housed in their facilities. Many conditions similar to those observed in domestic animals can develop in zoological species and can benefit from treatment with acupuncture. Through operant conditioning or routine medical examinations, the use of acupuncture as an adjunct therapy is becoming more common. The following paper presents a summary of the types of non-domestic animals treated, for which conditions, and how these methods are commonly used.

There are very few studies describing euthanasia complications in non-domestic species. The goal of this study was to survey veterinarians to determine what complications may commonly occur during the euthanasia of non-domestic species. An online survey was sent to seven professional organization listservs containing veterinarians most likely to practice on non-domestic species. Forty-one cases of euthanasia complications were reported. The most common taxa reported were mammals, (23/41, 56%), followed by avian (8/41, 20%), reptile (7/41, 17%), and fish (3/41, 7%). Most animals were reported to have been anesthetized prior to euthanasia (28/41, 68%). The most common method of euthanasia was pentobarbital (27/41, 66%). The reported euthanasia complications included “took an excessive amount of euthanasia solution” (12/41, 29%), “heart would not stop” (9/41, 22%), “animal awoke at a later time” (4/41, 10%), “a secondary method of euthanasia was required” (4/41, 10%), and “other” (12/41, 29%). This study reports complications that can occur during the euthanasia of non-domestic species. The concept of dysthanasia, a euthanasia with an undesirable outcome, has not been previously discussed in the context of zoo, wildlife, aquarium, and exotic pet practice. Strategies to reduce dysthanasia from both animal and human perspectives are explored, including alternative euthanasia techniques, principal-based euthanasia, and mental health implications.

Neoplasia has been reported in lizards, but more research is needed to accurately document the prevalence and prognosis of the various known neoplasms that affect lizards. This study reviewed medical records from an online database, the Exotic Species Cancer Research Alliance (ESCRA), and reviewed published literature to determine the prevalence of neoplasia, malignancy, metastasis, treatment strategies, and outcomes by species and sex. Records from 55 individual lizards, 20 different species, and 37 different tumors were identified. In the literature, 219 lizards, 59 species, and 86 unique tumors were identified from 72 published case reports. Potential signalment factors such as age, sex, and species were evaluated to see if they affected case outcome. Additional factors including neoplasia type, presence of metastasis, and types of pursued treatments were also evaluated. Statistical analysis was performed to determine whether a factor was significantly associated with animal death due to the identified neoplasia or with animal survival or death due to other causes (non-neoplastic outcomes). Komodo dragons and savannah monitors were more likely to die from neoplasia compared to other lizard species. Cases where the status of metastasis was unknown were significantly associated with death due to neoplasia. Having an unknown status of male versus female was significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. Leukemia and islet cell carcinoma were significantly associated with death due to neoplastic causes. Chondrosarcoma, myxosarcoma, osteosarcoma, and squamous cell carcinoma were significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. Surgery alone and radiation therapy alone each were significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death, while lizards not receiving treatment were significantly associated with death due to neoplasia. Benign neoplasia was significantly associated with non-neoplastic outcomes of death. These results will aid in the improved diagnosis and management of neoplasia in lizard species, as well as expanding our understanding of prognostic indicators of neoplasia in lizards.

This study evaluated neoplasia in fish using medical records from zoos, aquariums, and exotic animal veterinarians. The parameters evaluated included geographic location, habitat type, signalment, anatomic location of neoplasia, type of neoplasia as confirmed with histologic examination, survival time, and treatments provided for each patient. These data were entered into the Exotic Species Cancer Research Alliance (ESCRA) database. Out of 455 cases from across the United States and England, most animals submitted were from zoologic parks or aquariums (62.9%), followed by private ownership (1.5%). The percent of female (19.3%) and male (17.8%) patients were similar, and the mean age at the time of diagnosis was 99.45 months, with a range of 12 to 300 months. The species with the highest neoplasia prevalence was koi (18.5%), followed by goldfish (10.8%). The eye was the most commonly reported site for a primary neoplasm (8.4%), and the most prevalent diagnosis across all organ systems was soft tissue sarcoma (26.2%). Only 13 patients in this study (2.9%) received any form of treatment, with a mean survival time of 8.85 months post-treatment. These data demonstrate that while information related to clinical therapy of cancer in fish species is lacking, surgical excision of tumors in fish, when feasible for the patient and client, may improve patient outcomes.

Photobiomodulation therapy (cold laser or low-level laser therapy) has been evaluated in human and small animal medicine; however, there is a lack of knowledge about the role photobiomodulation therapy could play in reptile rehabilitation and release. This study used a quantifiable unit, Hounsfield units (bone density measurement), in computed tomography (CT) to evaluate if photobiomodulation therapy showed a significant healing difference between groups treated with photobiomodulation and those that were not. This study included 20 eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina) presented to a rehabilitation center that sustained shell fractures without penetrating the coelom. They all received similar medical treatments, except that the photobiomodulation group received 250 Hz of red light laser for three minutes three times a week for eight weeks. The turtles were evaluated over the course of two months of therapy. Computed tomography scans were performed prior to therapy, at the midpoint of treatment (one month postinjury), and at the end of the study (two months postinjury). The average Hounsfield units of the fractures were evaluated using nonparametric means, the Wilcoxon/Kruskal–Wallis tests (ranked sums), and found that there were no significant differences in shell density between the photobiomodulation and control groups amongst the scans. This study did find that there was a significant difference (p = 0.0455) between the two groups in regard to the width of the fracture between pre- and post-treatment scans. This study found that the photobiomodulation group had a significantly decreased width of the fracture site between pre-treatment and post-treatment measurements, showing that photobiomodulation could be a relatively easy and effective treatment to promote healing of fractured turtle shells.