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To assess and explain the United States' gender wealth gap, we use the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study to examine wealth accumulated by a single cohort over 50 years by gender, by marital status, and limited to the respondents who are their family's best financial reporters. We find large gender wealth gaps between currently married men and women, and between never-married men and women. The never-married accumulate less wealth than the currently married, and there is a marital disruption cost to wealth accumulation. The status-attainment model shows the most power in explaining gender wealth gaps between these groups explaining about one-third to one-half of the gap, followed by the human-capital explanation. In other words, a lifetime of lower earnings for women translates into greatly reduced wealth accumulation. After controlling for the full model, we find that a gender wealth gap remains between married men and women that we speculate may be related to gender differences in investment strategies and selection effects.

In late June 2021, western North America, and in particular the Pacific Northwest experienced a heatwave with temperatures usually only encountered in hot desert climates. Using a blend of reanalysis data and Earth System Model (ESM) simulations, we disentangle the physical drivers underlying this exceptional event. Our analysis highlights the role of the anticyclonic circulation aloft, which converted previously gained potential energy—some of which by intense latent heating thousands of kilometers upwind over the North Pacific—back into sensible heat through subsidence. We demonstrate that this upwind latent heat release did not only result in a hot troposphere above the heatwave region, but also contributed directly to escalating near‐surface temperatures. Facilitated by the mountainous terrain and dry soils in the region, deep atmospheric boundary layers were established over the course of several days, connecting the air close to Earth's surface to a massive heat reservoir many kilometers above. Anomalous soil moisture acted to raise the heatwave temperatures by 3°C in a large region during the peak of the event, with local anomalies exceeding 5°C. Overall, we conclude that this heatwave was the outcome of an intricate interplay between dynamic and thermodynamic processes. ESM experiments suggest that the same large‐scale atmospheric circulation fueled by enhanced thermodynamic drivers, such as more available moisture for condensation upwind, could enable even more extreme near‐surface temperatures, in particular in a warmer climate. Plain Language Summary In late June 2021, western North America, and in particular the Pacific Northwest, experienced temperatures normally encountered in hot deserts. Our analysis highlights the role of the anticyclonic circulation aloft, whose downward spiraling air masses converted previously gained potential energy back into sensible heat. We show that in addition to heating through sinking, the air was previously heated by condensation in ascending air streams thousands of kilometers upwind, over the North Pacific. Together, these processes fostered a massive heat reservoir above the heatwave region, which contributed to escalating near‐surface temperatures through strong vertical mixing. Dry soils in the region intensified surface heating, boosting maximum temperatures in excess of 5°C. Overall, we conclude that this heatwave was the outcome of an intricate interplay of the atmospheric flow and processes such as condensational and surface heating, further exacerbated by human‐induced background warming. Our experiments suggest that if fueled by more available moisture for condensation upwind, the same large‐scale atmospheric circulation could enable even more extreme near‐surface temperatures. Key Points A strong “Omega Block” enabled the heatwave, yet near‐surface air temperatures were more extreme than suggested by the large‐scale flow Sinking air aloft previously experienced strong latent heating over the North Pacific, contributing to the high near‐surface temperatures Deep atmospheric boundary layers brought the extreme heat down to the surface, with local soil moisture effects in excess of 5°C

Influenza B virus primarily infects humans, causing seasonal epidemics globally. Two antigenic variants—Victoria-like and Yamagata-like—were detected in the 1980s, of which the molecular basis of emergence is still incompletely understood. Here, the antigenic properties of a unique collection of historical virus isolates, sampled from 1962 to 2000 and passaged exclusively in mammalian cells to preserve antigenic properties, were determined with the hemagglutination inhibition assay and an antigenic map was built to quantify and visualize the divergence of the lineages. The antigenic map revealed only three distinct antigenic clusters—Early, Victoria, and Yamagata—with relatively little antigenic diversity in each cluster until 2000. Viruses with Victoria-like antigenic properties emerged around 1972 and diversified subsequently into two genetic lineages. Viruses with Yamagata-like antigenic properties evolved from one lineage and became clearly antigenically distinct from the Victoria-like viruses around 1988. Recombinant mutant viruses were tested to show that insertions and deletions (indels), as observed frequently in influenza B virus hemagglutinin, had little effect on antigenic properties. In contrast, amino-acid substitutions at positions 148, 149, 150, and 203, adjacent to the hemagglutinin receptor binding site, determined the main antigenic differences between the Early, Victoria-like, and Yamagata-like viruses. Surprisingly, substitutions at two of the four positions reverted in recent viruses of the Victoria lineage, resulting in antigenic properties similar to viruses circulating ∼50 y earlier. These data shed light on the antigenic diversification of influenza viruses and suggest there may be limits to the antigenic evolution of influenza B virus.

The predominant approach for antibody generation remains animal immunization, which can yield exceptionally selective and potent antibody clones owing to the powerful evolutionary process of somatic hypermutation. However, animal immunization is inherently slow, not always accessible and poorly compatible with many antigens. Here, we describe ‘autonomous hypermutation yeast surface display’ (AHEAD), a synthetic recombinant antibody generation technology that imitates somatic hypermutation inside engineered yeast. By encoding antibody fragments on an error-prone orthogonal DNA replication system, surface-displayed antibody repertoires continuously mutate through simple cycles of yeast culturing and enrichment for antigen binding to produce high-affinity clones in as little as two weeks. We applied AHEAD to generate potent nanobodies against the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, a G-protein-coupled receptor and other targets, offering a template for streamlined antibody generation at large. Autonomous hypermutation yeast surface display (AHEAD) mimics the process of somatic hypermutation in animals to enable the rapid in vitro evolution of antibodies, including nanobodies targeting the RBD of SARS-CoV-2.

Women’s opportunities have been profoundly altered over the past century by reductions in the social and structural constraints that limit women’s educational attainment. Do social constraints manifest as a suppressing influence on genetic indicators of potential, and if so, did equalizing opportunity mean equalizing the role of genetics? We address this with three cohort studies: the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS; birth years 1939 to 1940), the Health and Retirement Study, and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health; birth years 1975 to 1982). These studies include a “polygenic score” for educational attainment, providing a novel opportunity to explore this question. We find that within the WLS cohort, the relationship between genetics and educational outcomes is weaker for women than for men. However, as opportunities changed in the 1970s and 1980s, and many middle-aged women went back to school, the relationship between genetic factors and education strengthened for women as they aged. Furthermore, utilizing the HRS and Add Health, we find that as constraints limiting women’s educational attainment declined, gender differences in the relationship between genetics and educational outcomes weakened. We demonstrate that genetic influence must be understood through the lens of historical change, the life course, and social structures like gender.

The systems often rely on gene families encoding surface antigens localized at subtelomeres; presumably because these genomic regions are prone to gene silencing and perhaps enhanced mutagenesis [7]. [...]the clusters of telomeres that are formed at the nuclear periphery during meiosis may favor ectopic recombinations, which can be responsible for the generation of new mosaic antigens [8]. [...]structure is similar to leucine zipper motifs that are known to be involved in nonspecific protein–protein interaction. [...]Msgs have been demonstrated to be involved in adhesion to (i) constituents of the extracellular matrix present between lung epithelial cells (fibronectin, vibronectin, laminin) [20], (ii) lung surfactant protein D [21], and (iii) macrophage mannose receptors [22]. Consistently, all Msgs, except those of Families IV and C, were predicted to be fungal adhesins using a bioinformatics tool based on signatures conserved among fungal adhesins [23], and all present sites of nitrogen-linked glycosylation that are known to be crucial in pathogen–host interactions. [...]they fit the model of fungal adhesin structure with a serine and threonine-rich region at the C terminus responsible for stiffening of the molecule through O-glycosylation and a ligand-binding domain at the N terminus [24]. [...]the fact that the Msg sets of P. carinii and P. murina are similar, except the additional presence of Family C in P. murina, might reflect that they both infect rodents.

Sociologists have long used educational expectations to understand the complex mental processes underlying individuals' educational decision making. Yet, little research evaluates how students actually formulate their educational expectations. Status attainment theory asserts that students adopt their educational expectations early based on family background and social influences, and that their educational expectations are driven by a static mental construct as a result. In contrast, recent research based on Bayesian learning theory hypothesizes that students mostly adapt their educational expectations in light of new information about their academic potential. Comparing models of expectations formation in adolescence, we find that students' expectations do not derive from a static mental construct. However, students adapt their educational expectations only modestly and only in response to very large changes in grade point averages. Thus, adolescent educational expectations stabilize early and are rather persistent over time.

Protein-based virus-like particles (P-VLPs) are commonly used to spatially organize antigens and enhance humoral immunity through multivalent antigen display. However, P-VLPs are thymus-dependent antigens that are themselves immunogenic and can induce B cell responses that may neutralize the platform. Here, we investigate thymus-independent DNA origami as an alternative material for multivalent antigen display using the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, the primary target of neutralizing antibody responses. Sequential immunization of mice with DNA-based VLPs (DNA-VLPs) elicits protective neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in a manner that depends on the valency of the antigen displayed and on T cell help. Importantly, the immune sera do not contain boosted, class-switched antibodies against the DNA scaffold, in contrast to P-VLPs that elicit strong B cell memory against both the target antigen and the scaffold. Thus, DNA-VLPs enhance target antigen immunogenicity without generating scaffold-directed immunity and thereby offer an important alternative material for particulate vaccine design. Three-dimensional DNA origami constructs can be used to deliver vaccine antigens in a multi-valent form. Here the authors design a DNA origami system for SARS-CoV-2 proteins and characterize in mice the immune response and protective capacity of generated antibodies, finding that the construct itself is not immunogenic.

About the Authors: Philippe M. Hauser * E-mail: Philippe.Hauser@chuv.ch Affiliation: Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland ORCID logo http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2834-7922 Melanie T. Cushion Affiliations Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America, Veterans Administration Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America ORCID logo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6621-2784 Citation: Hauser PM, Cushion MT (2018) Is sex necessary for the proliferation and transmission of Pneumocystis? Whatever the reason, trophic forms seem to have remained in a latent state during the echinocandin treatment because withdrawal of the drug led to repopulation of asci within a week. [...]trophic forms may have subtle roles within the life cycle such as ensuring survival of the fungus rather than proliferation. Targeted staining of a glycoprotein specific to the surface of P. murina ascospores recently provided direct evidence that asci do release these forms during infection and that the latter are then widely present within the population (Fig 2L, green label) [23]. [...]dehiscence, i.e., the release of the ascospores, does occur frequently within the lungs where the asci have been produced, demonstrating that sex contributes significantly to the proliferation of Pneumocystis (Fig 1). Cushion MT, Ashbaugh A, Hendrix K, Linke MJ, Tisdale N, Sayson SG, Porollo A (2018) Gene expression of Pneumocystis murina after treatment with anidulafungin results in strong signals for sexual reproduction, cell wall integrity, and cell cycle arrest, indicating a requirement for ascus formation for proliferation.

The Psychiatric Genomics Consortium-Posttraumatic Stress Disorder group (PGC-PTSD) combined genome-wide case-control molecular genetic data across 11 multiethnic studies to quantify PTSD heritability, to examine potential shared genetic risk with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder and to identify risk loci for PTSD. Examining 20 730 individuals, we report a molecular genetics-based heritability estimate (h2 SNP ) for European-American females of 29% that is similar to h2 SNP for schizophrenia and is substantially higher than h2 SNP in European-American males (estimate not distinguishable from zero). We found strong evidence of overlapping genetic risk between PTSD and schizophrenia along with more modest evidence of overlap with bipolar and major depressive disorder. No single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) exceeded genome-wide significance in the transethnic (overall) meta-analysis and we do not replicate previously reported associations. Still, SNP-level summary statistics made available here afford the best-available molecular genetic index of PTSD--for both European- and African-American individuals--and can be used in polygenic risk prediction and genetic correlation studies of diverse phenotypes. Publication of summary statistics for ∼10 000 African Americans contributes to the broader goal of increased ancestral diversity in genomic data resources. In sum, the results demonstrate genetic influences on the development of PTSD, identify shared genetic risk between PTSD and other psychiatric disorders and highlight the importance of multiethnic/racial samples. As has been the case with schizophrenia and other complex genetic disorders, larger sample sizes are needed to identify specific risk loci.