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Millions of native animals around the world are rescued and rehabilitated each year by wildlife rehabilitators. Triage and rehabilitation protocols need to be robust and evidence-based, with outcomes consistently recorded, to promote animal welfare and better understand predictors of wildlife survival. We conducted a global systematic review and meta-analysis of 112 articles that reported survival rates of native mammals and birds during rehabilitation and after release to determine intrinsic and extrinsic factors associated with their survival. We assessed survival during rehabilitation and in the short- and long-term post-release, with the hypothesis that survival will vary as a function of species body size, diel activity pattern, trophic level and study location (region of the world). We aimed to determine the direction of effect of these factors on survival to assist in decision-making during triage and rehabilitation. Results showed that mammals and birds were equally likely to survive all stages of rehabilitation, and survival rates varied between locations. Birds in North America had the poorest survival rates post-release, particularly long-term, as did diurnal and carnivorous birds in the short-term post-release. Anthropogenic factors such as motor vehicle collisions and domestic or feral animal attack contributed to morbidity and post-release mortality in 45% (168 of 369) of instances. The reasons for rescue and associated severity of diagnosis were commonly reported to affect the likelihood of survival to release, but factors affecting survival were often species-specific, including bodyweight, age, and characteristics of the release location. Therefore, evidence-based, species-specific, and context-specific protocols need to be developed to ensure wildlife survival is maximised during rehabilitation and post-release. Such protocols are critical for enabling rapid, efficient rescue programs for wildlife following natural disasters and extreme weather events which are escalating globally, in part due to climate change.

Contraception has an established role in managing overabundant populations and preventing undesirable breeding in zoos. We propose that it can also be used strategically and selectively in conservation to increase the genetic and behavioral quality of the animals. In captive breeding programs, it is becoming increasingly important to maximize the retention of genetic diversity by managing the reproductive contribution of each individual and preventing genetically suboptimal breeding through the use of selective contraception. Reproductive suppression of selected individuals in conservation programs has further benefits of allowing animals to be housed as a group in extensive enclosures without interfering with breeding recommendations, which reduces adaptation to captivity and facilitates the expression of wild behaviors and social structures. Before selective contraception can be incorporated into a breeding program, the most suitable method of fertility control must be selected, and this can be influenced by factors such as species life history, age, ease of treatment, potential for reversibility, and desired management outcome for the individual or population. Contraception should then be implemented in thepopulation following a step-by-step process. In this way, it can provide crucial, flexible control over breeding to promote the physical and genetic health and sustainability of a conservation dependent species held in captivity. For Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii), black-flanked rock wallabies (Petrogale lateralise and burrowing bettongs (Bettongia lesueur), contraception can benefit their conservation by maximizing genetic diversity and behavioral integrity in the captive breeding program, or, in the case of the wallabies and bettongs, by reducing populations to a sustainable size when they become locally overabundant. In these examples, contraceptive duration relative to reproductive life, reversibility, and predictability of the contraceptive agent being used are important to ensure the potential for individuals to reproducefollowing cessation of contraception, as exemplified by the wallabies when their population crashed and needed females to resume breeding. La anticoncepción tiene un papel establecido en el manejo de poblaciones sobreabundantes y en la prevención de reproducción indeseada en los zoológicos. Proponemos que también puede usarse estratégica y selectivamente en la conservación para incrementar la calidad genética y de comportamiento de los animales. En los programas de reproducción en cautiverio es cada vez más importante maximizar la retención de la diversidad genética manejando la contribución reproductiva de cada individuo y previniendo la reproducción subóptima genéticamente por medio del uso de la anticoncepción selectiva. La represión reproductiva de individuos selectos en los programas de conservación tiene más beneficios, como permitir a los animales ser alojados en grupo en recintos extensos sin interferir con las recomendaciones reproductivas, lo que reduce la adaptación al cautiverio y facilita la expresión de comportamientos y estructuras sociales de vida libre. Antes de que la anticoncepción selectiva pueda ser incorporada a un programa de reproducción, se debe elegir el método de control de la fertilidad más adecuado, y esto puede estar influenciado por factores como la historia de vida de la especie, la edad, la facilidad de manejo, el potencial para la reversibilidad, y el resultado deseado de manejo para el individuo o la población. Después de esto se debe implementar la anticoncepción dentro de la población siguiendo un proceso de paso-por-paso. De esta manera, puede proporcionar un control decisivo y flexible sobre la reproducción para promover la salud física y genética y la sustentabilidad de una especie dependiente de la conservación que se encuentra en cautiverio. Para los demonios de Tasmania (Sarcophilus harrisii), los walabíes de las rocas de flancos negros (Petrogale lateralis), y las ratas canguro de nariz corta (Bettongia lesueur), la anticoncepción puede beneficiar su conservación al maximizar la diversidad genética y la integridad conductual en el programa de reproducción en cautiverio, o, en el caso de los walabíes y las ratas canguro, al reducir a las poblaciones a un tamaño sustentable cuando se vuelvan sobreabundantes localmente. En estos ejemplos, la duración de la anticoncepción en relación a la vida reproductiva, la reversibilidad, y la predictibilidad del agente anticonceptivo que se usa son importantes para asegurar el potencial de reproducción de los individuos una vez que cese la anticoncepción, como se ejemplifica con los walabíes cuando su población colapsó y necesitó de hembras para reanudar su reproducción. 节育是动物园管理数量过多动物神群数量和避免不恰当繁殖的ー项措施。我们认为节育也可以战略性和 选择性地用于动物保护, 以提高动物遗传和行为的质量。在圈养繁育项目中，通过控制每个个体参与繁殖来保留 最高的遗传多祥性，并通过选择性节育防止非最优的繁殖已变得越来越重要。保护项目中选择性地抑制个体繁 殖有利于动物在大围栏内集群生活，而不会破坏繁育计划，这不仅能减少了动物对圈养环境的适应，而且能促进 它们展现野生生活的行为和社会结构。在将选择性节育纳入繁育项目之前，我们应选出最适合的节育方法,而这 会受到物种的生活史、年龄、处理难度及可逆性潜力和对个体或种群预期的管理结果等因素的影_。接下來 节育应在种群中逐步推行。这样可以有效且灵活地控制动物的繁殖，以提高依赖于圈养保护物神的身体健康、遗传健康和可持续性。对于袋獾(Sarcophilus harrisii)、黑胁小岩袋鼠(Petrogale lateralis) 和穴居草原袋鼠 (Bettongia lesueur)，节育可以最大化它们在圈养繁育项目中的遗传多祥ÍÉ和行为完整性,而对于小袋鼠和草原 袋鼠，节育使局部地区数量过多的种群減少到可持续的数量，有利于物种的保护。在这些例子中，要碥保个体在 节育终止后可以繁殖，节育持续的时间相对于繁殖年限、可逆性和采取节育方式的可预见性非常重要，这ー点在 小袋m 群崩溃、需要雌性来重新恢复繁殖时有所体现。

The 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season had a devastating impact on native wildlife. It was estimated that 3 billion native animals were impacted by the fires, yet there are few estimates of the number of animals that were rescued and rehabilitated post-fire. Focusing on the state of New South Wales (NSW) and Kangaroo Island, South Australia, we used a case study approach to determine the number of marsupials that were reported rescued due to the 2019–2020 bushfires in these areas and analysed species-specific trends in rescue and release success. In NSW, we found 889 reports of fire-affected marsupials in 2019–2020, mostly comprising kangaroos and wallabies (macropods; n = 458), koalas (n = 204), and possums (n = 162), with a smaller number of wombats (n = 43) and other marsupial species. Most reports of fire-affected marsupials occurred 6–8 weeks after fire ignition, and there was no difference in temporal frequency of rescues between marsupial groups. For the three main groups, the probability of survival and subsequent release differed, with macropods having the lowest probability of release after rescue (0.15 ± 0.04) compared to koalas (0.47 ± 0.04) and possums (0.55 ± 0.10). The type of injury was the main predictor of survival during rehabilitation for all three marsupial groups, with those malnourished/moribund or with traumatic injuries less likely to survive rehabilitation. Death or euthanasia occurred on the day of rescue for 77% of macropods, 48% of possums and 15% of koalas. Koalas most often died during rehabilitation rather than on the day of rescue, with 73% either dying or being euthanised between day 1 and 30 post-rescue, representing a potential welfare concern. On Kangaroo Island, koalas were the most frequently rescued marsupial species; most euthanasia cases and deaths occurred in a hospital, whereas other marsupials were mostly euthanised at triage. In both jurisdictions, koalas were over-represented while possums were under-represented relative to baseline population densities and wildlife rescue trends in the years before the 2019–2020 bushfires. These species differences in presentation post-fire warrant further investigation, as do the differences in triage, survival and release outcomes. It is hypothesised that the high intensity and large scale of the 2019–2020 fires impeded marsupial fire evasion tactics, as evidenced by the small number of animals found for rescue, and the differing rates of presentation relative to underlying population densities for the main marsupial groups. Based on our findings, there is a need for detailed record keeping and data sharing, development of consistent and evidence-based triage, treatment and euthanasia guidelines and deployment of trained wildlife emergency rescue teams with advanced search techniques to minimise animal suffering where safe to do so.

Volunteer wildlife rehabilitators rescue and rehabilitate thousands of native animals every year in Australia. However, there is little known about how exposure to novel stimuli during rehabilitation could affect the physiology of wildlife. We investigated this question in a species that commonly enters rehabilitation, the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). We evaluated five enzyme immunoassays (EIA) to determine the most suitable for measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) as a proxy for evaluating the response of brushtail possums to potential stressors during rehabilitation. An adrenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH) challenge was conducted on wild-caught possums to determine the best-performing EIA based on the successful detection of FGM peaks in at least two of three possums. While a number of assays met these criteria, the 11-oxoaetiocholanolone (abbreviation: 72a) EIA was selected as it had the largest amplitude of change in response to the ACTH challenge. This assay was then used to measure FGM concentrations in 20 possums during rehabilitation. There was high variation in baseline FGM concentrations and response to captivity between possums. Significant changes in FGM levels were detected in most possums during captivity, but were not reliably associated with potentially stressful events that were identified by rehabilitators. The probability of an FGM peak occurring within five days of a potentially stressful event was about 50%, regardless of the type of event. Our study has demonstrated that injured and orphaned possums show changes in FGMs during captivity and rehabilitation and has identified events that can induce a physiological response in some individuals. We recommend that research now focus on the relationship between these responses during rehabilitation and pre- and post-release survival.

Macropods are often implicated as the main native Australian reservoir hosts of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever); however, the maintenance and transmission capacity of these species are poorly understood. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to describe the epidemiology of C. burnetii in a high-density population of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) in a peri-urban coastal nature reserve in New South Wales, Australia. Blood, faeces and swabs were collected from forty kangaroos as part of a population health assessment. Frozen and formalin-fixed tissues were also collected from 12 kangaroos euthanised on welfare grounds. Specimens were tested for C. burnetii using PCR, serology, histopathology and immunohistochemistry. A total of 33/40 kangaroos were seropositive by immunofluorescence assay (estimated true seroprevalence 84%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 69% to 93%), with evidence of rising titres in two animals that had been tested four years earlier. The PCR prevalence was 65% (95% CI 48% to 79%), with positive detection in most sample types. There was no evidence of pathology consistent with C. burnetii, and immunohistochemistry of PCR-positive tissues was negative. These findings indicate that kangaroos are competent maintenance hosts of C. burnetii, likely forming a significant part of its animal reservoir at the study site.

The tammar wallaby (Notamacropus eugenii) is one of the most intensively studied of all macropodids and was the first Australasian marsupial to have its genome sequenced. However, comparatively little is known about genetic diversity and differentiation amongst the morphologically distinct allopatric populations of tammar wallabies found in Western (WA) and South Australia (SA). Here we compare autosomal and Y-linked microsatellite genotypes, as well as sequence data (~600 bp) from the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (CR) in tammar wallabies from across its distribution. Levels of diversity at autosomal microsatellite loci were typically high in the WA mainland and Kangaroo Island (SA) populations (A = 8.9-10.6; He = 0.77-0.78) but significantly reduced in other endemic island populations (A = 3.8-4.1; He = 0.41-0.48). Autosomal and Y-linked microsatellite loci revealed a pattern of significant differentiation amongst populations, especially between SA and WA. The Kangaroo Island and introduced New Zealand population showed limited differentiation. Multiple divergent mtDNA CR haplotypes were identified within both SA and WA populations. The CR haplotypes of tammar wallabies from SA and WA show reciprocal monophyly and are highly divergent (14.5%), with levels of sequence divergence more typical of different species. Within WA tammar wallabies, island populations each have unique clusters of highly related CR haplotypes and each is most closely related to different WA mainland haplotypes. Y-linked microsatellite haplotypes show a similar pattern of divergence although levels of diversity are lower. In light of these differences, we suggest that two subspecies of tammar wallaby be recognized; Notamacropus eugenii eugenii in SA and N. eugenii derbianus in WA. The extensive neutral genetic diversity and inter-population differentiation identified within tammar wallabies should further increase the species value and usefulness as a model organism.

Abstract Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii with domestic ruminants considered the main infection source for humans. Coxiella burnetii infection in Australian native wildlife (ANW) species has been demonstrated, however their role as reservoirs remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of C. burnetii DNA in tissues, swabs, and secretions from ANW, (primarily marsupials from eastern Australia), and further understand the pathogenesis in these species by identifying tissues infected and potential shedding routes. The study utilized an optimized multiplex quantitative PCR assay targeting three C. burnetii genes and a stringent classification system that prioritized specificity to overcome false positives known to occur due to Coxiella-like endosymbiont species. Of the 141 animals examined, one eastern gray kangaroo cloacal swab tested positive for C. burnetii DNA (at ~11 genome equivalents per reaction) in all three genes. Four animals were classified as suspect with amplification in two genes at a lower copy number. Genotyping of the definitively positive animal returned a C. burnetii genotype previously associated with human Q fever cases, which underscores the importance of Q fever vaccination where available for individuals in contact with wildlife, given the potential severity of the disease in humans. A stringent molecular methodology prioritizing specificity was used to investigate Coxiella burnetii pathogenesis in Australian macropods and wombats and a genotype previously causing Q fever in humans was identified.

Sprawling urban development is fragmenting the landscape and native wildlife habitats on the Australian east coast. The impact of this rapid urbanization on wildlife health is largely unknown. This study surveyed the health of a high-density (5.4 individuals per ha) population of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) affected by urban encroachment and prolonged drought. Blood parameters (hematological and serum protein), trace element and heavy metal concentrations, and parasite counts (fecal worm egg counts, ticks, and mites) are reported for a sample of ≤ 54 kangaroos at Look at Me Now Headland, New South Wales, Australia. These parameters were compared to lower density kangaroo populations from other sites in New South Wales. We found the health and welfare of this population to be severely compromised, with nonregenerative anemia and nutritional deficiencies evident. Our results indicate that high-density kangaroo populations isolated by urban encroachment are at significant health risk. To prevent further decline in this population's health, we discuss management strategies that could be employed, concurrent with ongoing health and disease monitoring, to mitigate the poor health outcomes in this population. We conclude that it is essential to retain habitat connectivity when altering land use in areas with resident kangaroo populations if managers are to maintain healthy populations.

Marsupials have a functional placenta for a shorter period of time compared to that of eutherian species and their altricial young reach the teats without any help from the mother. We have monitored the short intrauterine development of one marsupial, the tammar wallaby, with high-resolution ultrasound from reactivation of the 100-cell diapausing blastocyst to birth. The expanding blastocyst could be visualized when it had reached a diameter of 1.5 mm. From at least halfway through pregnancy, there are strong undulating movements of the endometrium that massage the expanding vesicle against the highly secretory endometrial surface. These unique movements possibly enhance exchange of uterine secretions and gases between the mother and embryo. There was a constant rate of development measured ultrasonographically from mid-gestation, regardless of when the blastocyst reactivated. Interestingly climbing movements by the fetus began in utero about 3 days before birth, mimicking those required to climb to the pouch.

Isolation and restricted gene flow can lead to genetic deterioration in populations. Populations of many species are increasingly becoming fragmented due to human impacts and active management is required to prevent further extinctions. Islands provide an ideal location to protect species from many mainland threatening processes such as habitat loss and fragmentation, disease and competition/predation from introduced species. However their isolation and small population size renders them prone to loss of genetic diversity and to inbreeding. This study examined two endemic and one introduced population of tammar wallaby ( Macropus eugenii ) on three islands in the Houtman Abrolhos Archipelago, Western Australia: East Wallabi (EWI), West Wallabi (WWI) and North Islands (NI). Nine autosomal and four Y-linked microsatellite loci, and sequence data from the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region were used to examine the impact of long-term isolation (EWI and WWI) and small founder size (NI) on genetic diversity and inbreeding. This study found all three populations had low genetic diversity, high levels of effective inbreeding and increased frequency of morphological abnormalities. Isolation has also led to significant inter-population genetic differentiation. These results highlight the importance of incorporating genetic management strategies when utilising islands as refuges for declining mainland populations.