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Urban green infrastructure is increasingly recognized as a core component of urban sustainability, providing regulating ecosystem services (ES) that support climate resilience, environmental quality, and long-term urban livability. However, empirical evidence on the long-term stability of ecosystem services (ES) in rapidly urbanizing cities remains limited. Despite widespread assumptions that urbanization inevitably leads to irreversible ecological decline, few studies have quantitatively examined whether ES can persist, or even recover, over multi-decadal time horizons relevant to sustainable urban development. This study investigates the long-term trajectories of eight urban ES in Seoul, South Korea, across nearly five decades (1978–2025) and eight congressional districts, providing one of the longest temporal assessments of urban ES in East Asia. Using i-Tree Canopy and high-resolution aerial imagery across four benchmark years (1978, 1989, 2010, 2025), this study quantified standardized indicators for carbon sequestration (CSeq), avoided runoff (AVRO), and removal of six atmospheric pollutants (O3, NO2, SO2, CO, PM10, PM2.5). Paired-sample t-tests and Cohen’s dz (effect size) were used to assess within-district temporal shifts and the magnitude of ecological change. Results reveal a pronounced period of early ecological stress during rapid industrialization (1978–1989), with negative standardized effect sizes across all services (dz between −0.65 and −0.72). However, these early losses were not sustained. Structural services such as CSeq and AVRO exhibited long-term functional stability, with effect sizes converging toward zero and the 1978–2025 change in CSeq showing no statistical difference (p = 0.784). Pollutant removal services followed an early-decline–followed-by-recovery trajectory, exemplified by CO removal shifting from a large early decline (dz = −0.72) to a modest positive effect in later decades dz = 0.31). These findings indicate that Seoul’s sustained urban greening and environmental policies were effective in preventing further deterioration and maintaining core ecological functions, even if they produced stabilization rather than significant long-term gains in ES delivery.

Urban green spaces (UGSs) provide numerous ecosystem services (ESs) that are essential to the well-being of the residents. However, these services are often neglected in regional urban development and spatial planning. This study quantified the ESs of a 10.25 ha UGS at Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea, comprising 27 species with 287 tree individuals, using i-Tree Eco. Key regulating ESs investigated included air pollution removal, carbon storage and sequestration, oxygen production, energy use reduction, avoidance of surface runoff, and replacement and functional values. Results revealed significant annual environmental benefits: 131 kg air pollutants removed (USD 3739.01 or ₩5.16 M), 1.76 Mg carbon sequestered, which is equivalent to 0.18 Mg CO2 ha−1 yr−1 (USD 289.85 or ₩0.40 M), 2.42 Mg oxygen produced, energy savings (including carbon offset) valued at USD 391.29 (₩0.54 M), and 203 m3 reduction in surface runoff (USD 413.09 or ₩0.57 M). The annual total benefits of these urban trees amounted to USD 4833.86 (₩6.67 M), USD 16.83/tree, or USD 0.089/capita. Additionally, these trees had replacement and functional values estimated at USD 311,115.17 (₩429.3 M). The study underscores that species selection and abundance of urban trees are fundamental for maximizing the ES delivery in urban areas, highlighting the role of UGSs in ecological and economical sustainability in cities. These insights are valuable for urban planners and policymakers to optimize benefits of UGSs in cities.

Urban green spaces (UGSs) are critical in providing essential ecosystem services (ESs) that enhance the quality of life of urban communities. This study investigated the synergies and trade-offs between structural characteristics of urban trees and their ecosystem services and their implications for urban park management within Yurim Park, Daejeon, South Korea, using the i-Tree Eco tool. The study specifically focused on regulating and supporting services, assessing diversity, air pollution removal, carbon sequestration, and avoiding runoff. A systematic review of urban park management practices complemented the empirical analysis to provide comprehensive management recommendations. The findings of a total of 305 trees from 23 species were assessed, revealing moderate species diversity and significant variations in structural attributes, such as diameter at breast height (DBH), leaf area index (LAI), and crown width (CW). These attributes were found to be strongly correlated with ES outcomes, indicating that healthier and larger trees with extensive canopies are more effective in providing benefits such as pollution removal, runoff reduction, and carbon sequestration. However, the study also identified trade-offs, particularly regarding volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions, which can contribute to ground-level ozone formation despite the trees’ pollution removal capabilities, sensitivity to water stress, requirements for shade and cooling effects, and impacts on water yield. The results highlight the importance of strategic management practices to balance these trade-offs, such as selecting low-emitting species and employing incremental pruning to enhance pollutant removal while minimizing VOC emissions. Additionally, the findings underscore the significance of tree placement and landscape patterns in optimizing year-round benefits, particularly in reducing urban heat island effects and enhancing energy efficiency in adjacent buildings. The study concludes that while urban parks like Yurim Park offer substantial ecological and environmental benefits, continuous monitoring and adaptive management are essential to maximize synergies and mitigate trade-offs. The insights provided on species selection, tree placement, and landscape design offer valuable guidance for urban planners and landscape architects aiming at enhancing the effectiveness of urban parks as nature-based solutions for sustainable urban development.

Background Understanding the processes underlying carbon storage and balance is critical for equipping the terrestrial biosphere to respond to contemporary climatic challenges. However, ecosystem-level estimates and distribution of net primary productivity (NPP), a metric for evaluating forest carbon cycling patterns and dynamics, remain constrained by uneven empirical observations between above- and belowground fractions. We herein quantified the rate and composition of NPP for four stands characteristic of the cool-temperate deciduous ( Larix kaempferi , LK; Quercus mongolica , QM) and evergreen ( Pinus densiflora , PD; Pinus koraiensis , PK) forests of South Korea over a complete annual cycle (2022–2023). Variations in dynamic NPP compartments, particularly (1) canopy litterfall by stand and season and (2) fine root production by stand, diameter class, and depth interval, were further characterized using litter traps and ingrowth cores, respectively. Results Total NPP varied from 1226 ± 101 to 1796 ± 154 g m −2  yr −1 , with 78–84% allocated aboveground and 16–22% belowground. LK and QM exhibited total NPP up to 46% higher than PD and PK. Both litterfall and fine root production differed considerably across stands, decreasing in the order of QM > PK > PD > LK for litterfall and QM & PD > LK & PK for fine root production. Litterfall peaked in autumn, similar to the leaf phenological rhythm of many temperate deciduous species. In contrast, fine root production showed a negative vertical distribution with depth, which is consistent with decreasing nutrient availability and increasing mechanical impedance along the soil profile. Conclusions By disentangling the contribution levels and dynamic patterns of each NPP compartment, our findings demonstrate a strong inclination toward aboveground NPP investment when belowground resources are not limiting. In other words, an adequate nutrient supply enables plants to modify their priority allocation from fine root maintenance to internal resource transport, leaf production, canopy expansion, reproduction, and other critical aboveground functions. Such information underscores the necessity for forest management strategies that target soil fertility to strengthen not only canopy productivity and CO 2 sequestration but also ecosystem resilience by reinforcing allocation patterns that sustain high NPP and safeguard forests against shifting climate conditions.