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Access to veterinary drugs for livestock has become a major issue over the last decade. Analysis has tended to focus on the demand for these products, while studies looking at the drivers behind their use generally focus on farmer behavior and interactions between veterinarians and farmers. However, the use of drugs also depends on structural factors that determine the functioning of the drug supply chain and farmers' access to the drugs. This article presents an overview of the factors that limit access to veterinary drugs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) as well as the international policy tools and arrangements that claim to improve it. We have conducted a scoping review of the scientific and grey literature as well as the publicly-available data from both the animal health industry and international organizations. We aimed to gather information on the veterinary drugs market in SSA as well as on the international norms, recommendations, guidelines, and initiatives that impact SSA farmers' access to these drugs. We highlight numerous barriers to veterinary drug access in SSA. The SSA market is highly dependent on imports, yet the region attracts little attention from the international companies capable of exporting to it. It suffers from a high level of fragmentation and weak distribution infrastructures and services, and is driven by the multiplication of private non-professional actors playing a growing role in the veterinary drug supply chain. The distribution system is increasingly dualized, with on the one hand the public sector (supported by development organizations) supplying small scale farmers in rural areas, but with limited and irregular means; and on the other side a private sector largely unregulated which supplies commercial and industrial farming systems. Different innovations have been developed at the international and regional levels to try to reduce barriers, such as homogenizing national legislations, donations, and vaccine banks. Alongside decades-old inter-state cooperation, many new forms of public-private partnerships and other hybrid forums continue to emerge, signaling the private sector's increasing influence in global governance. Policies on animal health would be bolstered by a better understanding of the drivers behind and the components of access to veterinary drugs in different regional and national contexts. Inequalities in drug access need to be addressed and a market-driven approach adopted in order to strengthen our understanding of what determines veterinary drug use at the farm level. Policies should balance the interests of the various stakeholders, being careful not to reinforce bias toward certain diseases deemed \"interesting\" and neglect others that could prove to be highly important for veterinary public health.

Although currently available data indicate that Africa has the lowest usage of antimicrobials in animals in the world (adjusted by animal biomass), data show a high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens isolated from animals and animal products. Apart from the lack of solid data on antimicrobial use in many countries in Africa, different hypotheses could explain this situation. Qualitative interviews of farmers show a lack of knowledge and uninformed use of antimicrobials. Considering the development of animal farming to meet an increasing demand for proteins, this deficiency represents a serious public health issue. We advocate for policies that consider the specific challenges faced by family farmers in Africa, to simultaneously improve access to veterinary drugs while strengthening the regulation of their use. We propose a global approach targeting the agri-food system, offering innovative social and technical interventions on antimicrobial usage, adapted to family farmers.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) policies, which aim to redefine how antibiotics are used, reshape the veterinary profession’s relationships in at least two ways. The policies can give state veterinarians greater power over practising veterinarians and thus change the relationship between the profession and the government supposed to regulate it. The policies also call for coordination with other relevant professionals, mainly in the areas of human medicine and food safety, which can limit the veterinary profession’s autonomous decision-making. Based on a survey of veterinarians working at different levels of the administration and their non-veterinary colleagues in Switzerland, it is shown that AMR policies, by strengthening the administration’s planning and supervisory functions, do contribute to increased state control of the veterinary profession. However, this shift is limited because implementing the policies requires negotiating with representatives of the profession.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) policies, which aim to redefine how antibiotics are used, reshape the veterinary profession’s relationships in at least two ways. The policies can give state veterinarians greater power over practising veterinarians and thus change the relationship between the profession and the government supposed to regulate it. The policies also call for coordination with other relevant professionals, mainly in the areas of human medicine and food safety, which can limit the veterinary profession’s autonomous decision-making. Based on a survey of veterinarians working at different levels of the administration and their non-veterinary colleagues in Switzerland, it is shown that AMR policies, by strengthening the administration’s planning and supervisory functions, do contribute to increased state control of the veterinary profession. However, this shift is limited because implementing the policies requires negotiating with representatives of the profession.

Background European epidemic intelligence (EI) systems receive vast amounts of information and data on disease outbreaks and potential health threats. The quantity and variety of available data sources for EI, as well as the available methods to manage and analyse these data sources, are constantly increasing. Our aim was to identify the difficulties encountered in this context and which innovations, according to EI practitioners, could improve the detection, monitoring and analysis of disease outbreaks and the emergence of new pathogens. Methods We conducted a qualitative study to identify the need for innovation expressed by 33 EI practitioners of national public health and animal health agencies in five European countries and at the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). We adopted a stepwise approach to identify the EI stakeholders, to understand the problems they faced concerning their EI activities, and to validate and further define with practitioners the problems to address and the most adapted solutions to their work conditions. We characterized their EI activities, professional logics, and desired changes in their activities using NvivoⓇ software. Results Our analysis highlights that EI practitioners wished to collectively review their EI strategy to enhance their preparedness for emerging infectious diseases, adapt their routines to manage an increasing amount of data and have methodological support for cross-sectoral analysis. Practitioners were in demand of timely, validated and standardized data acquisition processes by text mining of various sources; better validated dataflows respecting the data protection rules; and more interoperable data with homogeneous quality levels and standardized covariate sets for epidemiological assessments of national EI. The set of solutions identified to facilitate risk detection and risk assessment included visualization, text mining, and predefined analytical tools combined with methodological guidance. Practitioners also highlighted their preference for partial rather than full automation of analyses to maintain control over the data and inputs and to adapt parameters to versatile objectives and characteristics. Conclusions The study showed that the set of solutions needed by practitioners had to be based on holistic and integrated approaches for monitoring zoonosis and antimicrobial resistance and on harmonization between agencies and sectors while maintaining flexibility in the choice of tools and methods. The technical requirements should be defined in detail by iterative exchanges with EI practitioners and decision-makers.

Cet article s’intéresse à L’Agriculteur normand, journal des fédérations départementales de la FNSEA en Basse-Normandie. En croisant sociologie du journalisme et du syndicalisme et en s’appuyant notamment sur des entretiens avec des rédacteurs du journal et des animateurs syndicaux, on montre qu’il se distingue fortement d’un bulletin syndical. Le traitement de l’actualité agricole rappelle la presse professionnelle et la presse locale. Sur le plan technique, alors que la FNSEA défend généralement l’agriculture conventionnelle, le journal couvre une large gamme de modèles techniques, mais avec un angle économique étroit qui empêche leur politisation. Cette publication est surtout une entreprise rentable, qui parvient à garder un leadership dans le domaine publicitaire, dont la logique commerciale bride l’expression de la parole syndicale.

Although currently available data indicate that Africa has the lowest usage of antimicrobials in animals in the world (adjusted by animal biomass), data show a high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens isolated from animals and animal products. Apart from the lack of solid data on antimicrobial use in many countries in Africa, diff erent hypotheses could explain this situation. Qualitative interviews of farmers show a lack of knowledge and uninformed use of antimicrobials. Considering the development of animal farming to meet an increasing demand for proteins, this defi ciency represents a serious public health issue. We advocate for policies that consider the specifi c challenges faced by family farmers in Africa, to simultaneously improve access to veterinary drugs while strengthening the regulation of their use. We propose a global approach targeting the agri-food system, off ering innovative social and technical interventions on antimicrobial usage, adapted to family farmers.

The significant increase in antibiotics resistance (AMR) has become a major issue over the last decade. Current international focus falls largely on reducing the excessive use and misuse of antibiotics in animal farming. The drivers of this consumption are generally studied through farmers' behavior and veterinary-farmers interactions. However, drug use also results from structural factors that determine the functioning of the drugs market chain and farmers' access to drugs. This article presents an overview of the limits to access to veterinary drugs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as well as the international policy tools and setups that claim to improve it. We analyze the scientific and grey literature, the publicly available data of the veterinary pharmaceutical industry and international organizations in order to gather information on the veterinary drugs markets in SSA, and on the norms, recommendations, guidelines and initiatives at international level that impact the functioning of the markets chains in SSA. We highlight numerous roadblocks to access to veterinary medicines in SSA. The African market is highly dependent on imports. It suffers from a high level of fragmentation, weak distribution infrastructures and services and is driven by the multiplication of private non- professional actors playing a growing role in the veterinary drug chains. The distribution system is increasingly dualized, with on the one hand the public sector (supported by development organizations) supplying small scale farmers in rural areas, but with limited and irregular means; and on the other side a private sector largely unregulated which supplies commercial and industrial farming systems. Different innovations have been developed at the international level to lower these barriers, such as homogenization of national legislations, donations and vaccine banks. Along decades-old inter-state cooperation, many new forms of Public-Private partnerships and hybrid forums are emerging, s

Type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are multiprotein complexes that transport effector proteins and protein–DNA complexes through bacterial membranes to the extracellular milieu or directly into the cytoplasm of other cells. Many bacteria of the family Xanthomonadaceae, which occupy diverse environmental niches, carry a T4SS with unknown function but with several characteristics that distinguishes it from other T4SSs. Here we show that the Xanthomonas citri T4SS provides these cells the capacity to kill other Gram-negative bacterial species in a contact-dependent manner. The secretion of one type IV bacterial effector protein is shown to require a conserved C-terminal domain and its bacteriolytic activity is neutralized by a cognate immunity protein whose 3D structure is similar to peptidoglycan hydrolase inhibitors. This is the first demonstration of the involvement of a T4SS in bacterial killing and points to this special class of T4SS as a mediator of both antagonistic and cooperative interbacterial interactions. Bacterial secretion systems deliver proteins to the extracellular milieu or directly into the cytoplasm of other cells. Here Souza et al . show that a type IV secretion system (T4SS) allows Xanthomonas citri to kill other Gram-negative bacterial species in a contact-dependent manner.