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Seismic discontinuities in the mantle are indicators of its thermo-chemical state and offer clues to its dynamics. Ray-based seismic methods, though limited by the approximations made, have mapped mantle transition zone discontinuities in detail, but have yet to offer definitive conclusions on the presence and nature of mid-mantle discontinuities. Here, we show how to use a wave-equation-based imaging method, reverse-time migration of precursors to surface-reflected seismic body waves, to uncover both mantle transition zone and mid-mantle discontinuities, and interpret their physical nature. We observe a thinned mantle transition zone southeast of Hawaii, and a reduction in impedance contrast around 410 km depth in the same area, suggesting a hotter-than-average mantle in the region. Here, we furthermore reveal a 4000–5000 km-wide reflector in new images of the mid mantle below the central Pacific, at 950–1050 km depth. This deep discontinuity exhibits strong topography and generates reflections with polarity opposite to those originating at the 660 km discontinuity, implying an impedance reversal near 1000 km. We link this mid-mantle discontinuity to the upper reaches of deflected mantle plumes upwelling in the region. Reverse-time migration full-waveform imaging is a powerful approach to imaging Earth’s interior, capable of broadening our understanding of its structure and dynamics and shrinking modeling uncertainties. This study uses reverse-time migration full-waveform seismic imaging to reveal a thinned transition zone and a 1000-km mid-mantle discontinuity under the Pacific near Hawaii which they link to the upper boundary of upwelling plume material.

Topography, or depth variation, of certain interfaces in the solid Earth can provide important insights into the dynamics of our planet interior. Although the intermediate- and long-range topographic variation of the 660-kilometer boundary between Earth’s upper and lower mantle is well studied, small-scale measurements are far more challenging. We found a surprising amount of topography at short length scale along the 660-kilometer boundary in certain regions using scattered P′P′ seismic waves. Our observations required chemical layering in regions with high short-scale roughness. By contrast, we did not see such small-scale topography along the 410-kilometer boundary in the upper mantle. Our findings support the concept of partially blocked or imperfect circulation between the upper and lower mantle.

Recent seismological studies challenge the traditional view that the interface between the core and mantle is a straightforward discontinuity. As seismology is pushed to its observational limits, a complex - potentially compositionally layered - region between the core and mantle is emerging.

Earth's solid inner core is surrounded by a convecting liquid outer core, creating the geodynamo driving the planet's magnetic field. Seismic studies using compressional body waves suggest hemispherical variation in the anisotropic structure of the inner core, but are poorly constrained because of limited earthquake and receiver distribution. Here, using normal mode splitting function measurements from large earthquakes, based on extended cross-coupling theory, we observe both regional variations and eastern versus western hemispherical anisotropy in the inner core. The similarity of this pattern with Earth's magnetic field suggests freezing-in of crystal alignment during solidification or texturing by Maxwell stress as origins of the anisotropy. These observations limit the amount of inner core super rotation, but would be consistent with oscillation.

The detection of deep reflected S waves on Mars inferred a core size of 1,830 ± 40 km (ref. 1 ), requiring light-element contents that are incompatible with experimental petrological constraints. This estimate assumes a compositionally homogeneous Martian mantle, at odds with recent measurements of anomalously slow propagating P waves diffracted along the core–mantle boundary 2 . An alternative hypothesis is that Mars’s mantle is heterogeneous as a consequence of an early magma ocean that solidified to form a basal layer enriched in iron and heat-producing elements. Such enrichment results in the formation of a molten silicate layer above the core, overlain by a partially molten layer 3 . Here we show that this structure is compatible with all geophysical data, notably (1) deep reflected and diffracted mantle seismic phases, (2) weak shear attenuation at seismic frequency and (3) Mars’s dissipative nature at Phobos tides. The core size in this scenario is 1,650 ± 20 km, implying a density of 6.5 g cm −3 , 5–8% larger than previous seismic estimates, and can be explained by fewer, and less abundant, alloying light elements than previously required, in amounts compatible with experimental and cosmochemical constraints. Finally, the layered mantle structure requires external sources to generate the magnetic signatures recorded in Mars’s crust. We provide observational evidence that suggests the presence of a molten silicate layer above the core of Mars, which is overlain by a partially molten layer, indicating that the core of Mars is smaller than previously thought.

Geodynamic modeling and seismic studies have highlighted the possibility that a thin layer of low seismic velocities, potentially molten, may sit atop the core‐mantle boundary but has thus far eluded detection. In this study we employ normal modes, an independent data type to body waves, to assess the visibility of a seismically slow layer atop the core‐mantle boundary to normal mode center frequencies. Using forward modeling and a data set of 353 normal mode observations we find that some center frequencies are sensitive to one‐dimensional kilometer‐scale structure at the core‐mantle boundary. Furthermore, a global slow and dense layer 1–3 km thick is better‐fitting than no layer. The well‐fitting parameter space is broad with a wide range of possible seismic parameters, which precludes inferring a possible composition or phase. Our methodology cannot uniquely detect a layer in the Earth but one should be considered possible and accounted for in future studies. Plain Language Summary Normal modes are long‐period oscillations of the whole Earth as it vibrates after large earthquakes. The frequency that a mode oscillates at depends on the interior structure of the Earth. Research suggests a global and thin layer of anomalous composition and low seismic wave speeds may have formed at the base of Earth's mantle, but would be difficult to observe seismically. We test and quantify the effect of this layer on the frequencies at which normal modes vibrate. We then compare these predictions to a large data set of normal mode frequency measurements to examine whether such a layer is consistent with observed data. We find that not only is a layer of 1–3 km thickness permitted by the modes, but that a layer being present improves the fit to the data. There are a wide range of parameters that adequately fit the data set so we cannot be specific about its properties. Furthermore a layer is likely not a unique way to improve the model. A seismically slow layer at the core‐mantle boundary has implications for processes in the mantle and outer core and the interaction between them. Key Points Normal mode center frequencies are a sensitive data type to detect seismically anomalous thin layers at the core‐mantle boundary A slow and dense layer on the order of 1 km thick atop the core‐mantle boundary can improve the fit to normal mode data The inclusion of a layer is likely not a unique way to improve the 1D model and layer properties remain uncertain

Constraining the thermal and compositional state of the mantle is crucial for deciphering the formation and evolution of Mars. Mineral physics predicts that Mars’ deep mantle is demarcated by a seismic discontinuity arising from the pressureinduced phase transformation of the mineral olivine to its higher-pressure polymorphs, making the depth of this boundary sensitive to both mantle temperature and composition. Here, we report on the seismic detection of a midmantle discontinuity using the data collected by NASA’s InSight Mission to Mars that matches the expected depth and sharpness of the postolivine transition. In five teleseismic events, we observed triplicated P and S waves and constrained the depth of this discontinuity to be 1,006 ± 40 km by modeling the triplicated waveforms. From this depth range, we infer a mantle potential temperature of 1,605 ± 100 K, a result consistent with a crust that is 10 to 15 times more enriched in heat-producing elements than the underlying mantle. Our waveform fits to the data indicate a broad gradient across the boundary, implying that the Martian mantle is more enriched in iron compared to Earth. Through modeling of thermochemical evolution of Mars, we observe that only two out of the five proposed composition models are compatible with the observed boundary depth. Our geodynamic simulations suggest that the Martian mantle was relatively cold 4.5 Gyr ago (1,720 to 1,860 K) and are consistent with a present-day surface heat flow of 21 to 24 mW/m².

A modern seismological method raises questions about the properties of Earth's inner core Earth's inner core has proven to be a challenging region for geophysicists to investigate, more than 80 years after its discovery ( 1 ). It grows slowly from the liquid iron alloy that constitutes the outer core, and its solidification is the result of the planet's cooling over the course of its history. The inner core provides an important part of the energy budget for the geodynamo—the mechanism that generates Earth's magnetic field—as latent heat is released and light elements are preferentially segregated into the fluid outer core. Despite the inner core's importance in the core's energy budget ( 2 ), its composition and material properties are difficult to ascertain. On page 329 of this issue, Tkalčić and Phạm ( 3 ) employ a new understanding of method that has been successfully used to study the crust and upper mantle to detect energy that has traveled as shear waves through the inner core. The shear-wave velocity ( V S ) reveals a softer inner core composition than previously thought.

NASA’s InSight (Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) mission landed in Elysium Planitia on Mars on 26 November 2018. It aims to determine the interior structure, composition and thermal state of Mars, as well as constrain present-day seismicity and impact cratering rates. Such information is key to understanding the differentiation and subsequent thermal evolution of Mars, and thus the forces that shape the planet’s surface geology and volatile processes. Here we report an overview of the first ten months of geophysical observations by InSight. As of 30 September 2019, 174 seismic events have been recorded by the lander’s seismometer, including over 20 events of moment magnitude Mw = 3–4. The detections thus far are consistent with tectonic origins, with no impact-induced seismicity yet observed, and indicate a seismically active planet. An assessment of these detections suggests that the frequency of global seismic events below approximately Mw = 3 is similar to that of terrestrial intraplate seismic activity, but there are fewer larger quakes; no quakes exceeding Mw = 4 have been observed. The lander’s other instruments—two cameras, atmospheric pressure, temperature and wind sensors, a magnetometer and a radiometer—have yielded much more than the intended supporting data for seismometer noise characterization: magnetic field measurements indicate a local magnetic field that is ten-times stronger than orbital estimates and meteorological measurements reveal a more dynamic atmosphere than expected, hosting baroclinic and gravity waves and convective vortices. With the mission due to last for an entire Martian year or longer, these results will be built on by further measurements by the InSight lander.Geophysical and meteorological measurements by NASA’s InSight lander on Mars reveal a planet that is seismically active and provide information about the interior, surface and atmospheric workings of Mars.