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Reintroduction, the human-mediated movement of organisms to re-establish locally extinct populations, has become a popular conservation tool. However, because reintroductions often focus on local or national conservation issues, their contribution to the conservation of biodiversity at large scale remains unclear. While taxonomic biases have already been identified in reintroduction programs at regional scales, studies have stressed the need to account for other facets of biodiversity when assessing the relevance of the allocation of conservation efforts. In particular, it may be very fruitful to discriminate if and how such taxonomic biases may influence the functional complementarity of reintroduction targets, and to which extent reintroduction practitioners may have focused on species performing more singular functions than others. Here, we investigate the diversity of functional traits supported by reintroduced species of terrestrial birds and mammals in Europe. For each taxonomic group, we explored the functional representativeness of reintroduction targets at the European scale, i.e., whether species involved in reintroduction programs collectively represent the range of functional trait variation observed in the regional assemblage. Because additional conservation value could have been given by practitioners to species performing singular functions, we also measured the functional distinctiveness of reintroduced species. We found that reintroductions of birds did not focus on functionally distinct species, and that the subset of reintroduced birds is representative of the functional diversity at a continental scale. However, reintroductions of mammals involved more functionally distinct species than expected, even though reintroduced mammals are not collectively representative of the functional diversity of the continental assemblage.

The mechanisms underlying bat and bird activity peaks (attraction) or losses (avoidance) near wind turbines remain unknown. Yet, understanding them would be a major lever to limit the resulting habitat loss and fatalities. Given that bat activity is strongly related to airflows, we hypothesized that airflow disturbances generated leeward (downwind) of operating wind turbines–via the so-called wake effect–make this area less favorable for bats, due to increased flight costs, decreased maneuverability and possibly lower prey abundance. To test this hypothesis, we quantified Pipistrellus pipistrellus activity acoustically at 361 site-nights in western France in June on a longitudinal distance gradient from the wind turbine and on a circular azimuth gradient of wind incidence angle, calculated from the prevailing wind direction of the night. We show that P . pipistrellus avoid the wake area, as less activity was detected leeward of turbines than windward (upwind) at relatively moderate and high wind speeds. Furthermore, we found that P . pipistrellus response to wind turbine (attraction and avoidance) depended on the angle from the wake area. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that changes in airflows around operating wind turbines can strongly impact the way bats use habitats up to at least 1500 m from the turbines, and thus should prompt the consideration of prevailing winds in wind energy planning. Based on the evidence we present here, we strongly recommend avoiding configurations involving the installation of a turbine between the origin of prevailing winds and important habitats for bats, such as hedgerows, water or woodlands.

Anthropogenic light pollution is an increasingly significant issue worldwide. Over the past century, the use of artificial lighting has increased in association with human activity. Artificial lights are suspected to have substantial effects on the ecology of many species, e.g., by producing discontinuities in the territories of nocturnal animals. We analyzed the potential influence of the intensity and type of artificial light on bat activity in a semi-natural landscape in France. We used a species approach, followed by a trait-based approach, to light sensitivity. We also investigated whether the effect of light could be related to foraging traits. We performed acoustic surveys at sites located along a gradient of light intensities to assess the activity of 15 species of bats. We identified 2 functional response groups of species: one group that was light-tolerant and one group that was light-intolerant. Among the species in the latter group that appear to be disadvantaged by lighting conditions, many are rare and threatened in Europe, whereas the species from the former group are better able to thrive in disturbed habitats such as lighted areas and may actually benefit from artificial lighting. Finally, several methods of controlling light pollution are suggested for the conservation of bat communities. Recommendations for light management and the creation of dim-light corridors are proposed; these strategies may play an important role in protecting against the impact of light pollution on nocturnal animals.

Biodiversity offsets are intended to achieve no net loss of biodiversity due to economic and human development. A variety of biodiversity components are addressed by offset policies. It is required that loss of protected species due to development be offset under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in Europe. We call this type of offset a species‐equality offset because the offset pertains to the same species affected by the development project. Whether species equality can be achieved by offset design is unknown. We addressed this gap by reviewing derogation files (i.e., specific files that describe mitigation measures to ensure no net loss under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) from 85 development projects in France (2009–2010). We collected information on type of effect (reversible vs. irreversible) and characteristics of affected and offset sites (i.e., types of species, total area). We analyzed how the type of effect and the affected‐site characteristics influenced the occurrence of offset measures. The proportion of species targeted by offset measures (i.e., offset species) increased with the irreversibility of the effect of development and the conservation status of the species affected by development (i.e., affected species). Not all effects on endangered species (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List) were offset; on average, 82% of affected species would be offset. Twenty‐six percent of species of least concern were offset species. Thirty‐five percent of development projects considered all affected species in their offset measures. Species richness was much lower in offset sites than in developed sites even after offset proposals. For developed areas where species richness was relatively high before development, species richness at offset sites was 5–10 times lower. The species‐equality principle appears to have been applied only partially in offset policies, as in the EU directives. We suggest the application of this principle through offsets is highly important for the long‐term conservation of biodiversity in Europe. Compensaciones y Conservación de las Especies de las Directivas de Hábitats y Aves de la UE

The role of hedgerows in maintaining biodiversity in areas of intensive agriculture is well known, particularly for bats. However, few studies have addressed the importance of the intrinsic characteristics of hedgerows for bats and disentangled the relative effects of local and landscape characteristics of hedgerows on bat activity. In an acoustic survey, we assessed bat activity by recording bat calls using detectors and manually verified all calls using spectrogram analysis. The parameters used to determine local hedgerow structures were the length of the line of trees, of shrub hedgerows, of wooded hedgerows without shrubs and of hedgerows including the three strata (tree, shrub and herb) at a local scale. We assessed the influence of hedgerow structure and on bat activity with an approach considering both species and community, comparing two different scales, the local and the landscape. We highlighted the importance of hedgerow characteristics for bats on both the local and landscape scales even though responses differ between species and spatial scales. We found that the presence of trees in hedgerows exerts a generally positive influence on bat activity and that hedgerows with the three strata had lower bat activity than hedgerows with trees. In our study, some bats seemed to prefer agricultural landscapes dominated by wooded hedgerows and, on the local scale, hedgerows that include trees with little diversified among strata, except for gleaning species. Our study shows that in terms of hedgerow management, conservation efforts must be designed and undertaken on both the local and landscape scales.

Artificial light at night is considered a major threat to biodiversity, especially for nocturnal species, as it reduces habitat availability, quality, and functionality. Since the recent evolution in light technologies in improving luminous efficacy, developed countries are experiencing a renewal of their lighting equipment that reaches its end-of-life, from conventional lighting technologies to light emitting diodes (LEDs). Despite potential cascading impacts of such a shift on nocturnal fauna, few studies have so far dealt with the impact of the renewal of street lighting by new technologies. Specifically, only one study, by Rowse et al.2016, examined the effects of switching from widely used low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps to LEDs, using bats as biological models. This study was based on a before-after-control-impact paired design (BACIP) at 12 pairs in the UK, each including one control and one experimental streetlight. If Rowse et al. 2016 showed no effect of switching to LEDs streetlights on bat activity, the effects of respective changes in light intensity and spectrum were not disentangled when testing switch effects. Here, we conduct a retrospective analysis of their data to include these covariates in statistical models with the aim of disentangling the relative effects of these light characteristics. Our re-analysis clearly indicates that the switches in spectrum and in intensity with replacement of LPS with LED lamps have significant additive and interactive effects, on bat activity. We also show that bat activity and buzz ratio decrease with increasing LED intensity while an opposite effect is observed with LPS lamps. Hence, the loss or the gain in bat activity when lamp types, i.e., spectrum, are switched strongly depends on the initial and new lamp intensities. Our results stress the need to consider simultaneously the effects of changes in the different lights characteristics when street lighting changes. Because switches from LPS to LED lamps can lead to an increase in light intensity, such technological changes may involve a reduction of bat activity in numerous cases, especially at high LED intensities. Since we are currently at an important crossroad in lighting management, we recommend to limit LED intensity and improve its spectral composition toward warmer colors to limit potential deleterious impacts on bat activity.

Background Artificial light at night is recognized as an increasing threat to biodiversity. However, information on the way highly mobile taxa such as bats spatially respond to light is limited. Following the hypothesis of a behavioural adaptation to the perceived risks of predation, we hypothesised that bats should avoid lit areas by shifting their flight route to less exposed conditions. Methods Using 3D acoustic localization at four experimentally illuminated sites, we studied how the distance to streetlights emitting white and red light affected the Probability of bats Flying Inside the Forest (PFIF) versus along the forest edge. Results We show that open-, edge-, and narrow-space foraging bats strongly change flight patterns by increasing PFIF when getting closer to white and red streetlights placed in the forest edge. These behavioural changes occurred mainly on the streetlight side where light was directed. Conclusions The results show that bats cope with light exposure by actively seeking refuge in cluttered environment, potentially due to involved predation risks. This is a clear indication that bats make use of landscape structures when reacting to light, and shows the potential of vegetation and streetlight orientation in mitigating effects of light. The study nevertheless calls for preserving darkness as the most efficient way.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of land‐use planning is a major tool to minimize the environmental impact of urbanization. SEA implementation is, however, often based on incomplete biodiversity diagnostics and almost entirely focused on lists of priority species with high conservation value. At the same time, recent studies in Systematic Conservation Planning illustrate how to integrate the multidimensionality of biodiversity on a large scale, such as ecosystem function and species' evolutionary uniqueness, which could broaden the spectrum of stakes for SEA on a regional scale. The objective of this study is to assess the complementarity and feasibility of adopting a multi‐facet approach to define spatial biodiversity priorities and inform regional SEA stakeholders. To do so, we used a spatial prioritization tool based on Species Distribution Models (SDM) to assess four facets of biodiversity (“priority species list”, “threatened species”, “functional distinctiveness” and “phylogenetic distinctiveness”). In a study of three taxonomic groups (Aves, Flora, and Papilionidae) in three regional administrative entities in France, our results confirm the pertinence of different facets of biodiversity to identify new and complementary priority areas for conservation. However, the limited amount of data adequate for SDM may bias the choice of conservation priorities. We conclude on the clear need to promote a holistic approach to biodiversity conservation if we are to correctly reduce the impacts of development projects on a land‐use planning scale. Résumé L'évaluation environnementale stratégique (EES) de l'aménagement du territoire est un outil essentielle pour minimiser l'impact environnemental de l'urbanization. La mise en œuvre de l'EES est cependant souvent basée sur des diagnostics de biodiversité incomplets et non exhaustifs et se concentre généralement sur des listes d'espèces prioritaires à haute valeur de conservation. Dans le même temps, la composante multidimensionnelle de la biodiversité est de plus en plus étudiée à travers des facettes auparavant négligées à large échelle des processus de Planification de la Conservation ; telles que la fonction des écosystèmes et le caractère unique de l'évolution des espèces qui pourrait élargir le spectre des enjeux de l'EES à l'échelle régionale. L'objectif de cette étude est. d'évaluer la complémentarité et la faisabilité d'adopter une approche multidimensionnelle pour définir les priorités spatiales en matière de biodiversité afin d'informer les acteurs régionaux de l'EES. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé un outil de priorisation spatiale basé sur les modèles de distribution des espèces (SDM) et considéré quatre facettes de la biodiversité (la “liste d'espèces prioritaires”, les “espèces menacées”, la “spécificité fonctionnelle” et la “spécificité phylogénétique”). A travers l'étude de trois groupes taxonomique (Oiseaux, Flore et Papillons) dans trois intercommunalités françaises, nous confirmons la pertinence d'étudier différentes facettes de la biodiversité pour identifier de nouvelles zones prioritaires complémentaires pour la conservation. Néanmoins, la quantité limitée de données adaptés pour les SDM peut biaiser le choix des priorités de conservation. Nous concluons sur la nécessité évidente de promouvoir une approche holistique de la conservation de la biodiversité si nous voulons réduire correctement les impacts des projets de développement à l'échelle de l'aménagement du territoire. Our study explores the complementarity and feasibility of adopting a multi‐facet approach to define spatial biodiversity priorities to inform regional Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) stakeholders. The study was conducted with data for three taxonomic groups in three local administrative entities situated in very different social and ecological contexts. We propose a workflow to help SEA stakeholders define multi‐faceted conservation priorities from open‐access databases. Finally, we provide recommendations for an operational implementation of such tools by SEA stakeholders.

Wetlands are highly productive habitats that are largely used by many avian species as stopover sites during their migrations. However, these habitats are highly threatened by anthropogenic activities, such as land use changes, the introduction of exotic species and global warming. Further understanding on the spatiotemporal use of wetlands and their surrounding areas by migrating birds is essential to predict how these changes might affect avian en route ecology. We selected a habitat-generalist passerine of conservation concern, the Bluethroat Luscinia svecica, as model of how migratory birds exploit a highly anthropogenic river basin in southwestern France (i.e. Barthes de la Nive) during autumn migration. We captured and radiotracked 29 young Bluethroats in this region to shed light on different aspects of their stopover ecology and behaviour, such as stopover duration, habitat selection and home range size. We also complemented the study with a characterization of Bluethroat diet and arthropod availability in different habitats. Bluethroats positively selected reedbeds (pure or mixed associated with carex), hydrophilous tall grasslands and corn crops. Birds staying more than just one day, 8.4 days on average, used preferably corn crops. Home range sizes were on average 5.8 ha (fixed kernels K95) and high occupancy area (K50) was 1.36 ha with large individual variation. Bluethroats stopping over with low body reserves tended to have larger home ranges and used preferentially corn crops, wet or mesotrophic grasslands and rural paths. Reedbeds were typically used as roosting habitat for the majority of birds, being on average 397 m apart from their daytime core areas. Short-staying birds tended to show higher body reserves and restricted their activities to a smaller home range (1 ha) in pure and mixed reedbed. The diet of Bluethroats was dominated by ants Hymenoptera Formicidae, Araneidae and Coleoptera that were most abundant in the corn crops. The use of corn crops by migrating Bluethroats during autumn in our study site appears to be a reasonable solution in a highly altered environment. Reducing the use of insecticides in these crops and delaying the harvesting time after mid-October are two measures that could favour Bluethroats and other migratory species while natural wetlands are restored and reedbeds protected from tree encroachment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS-This work was supported by the Conseil Départemental des Pyrénées Atlantiques, Syndicat Nive Maritime, Villefranque and Bayonne councils. We are particularly grateful to F. Esnault, S. Valles, R. Damestoy and R. Dufourcq. We are extremely thankful to L. Delalande, F. Delfour, A. Glad, M. Janczyszyn-Le Goff, T. Sarraude, for their commitment in the collection of the radiotracking data, to L. Julien for invertebrate sampling, and members of OISO association who made this research possible, especially F. Lartigau. National Museum of Natural History authorized the bird-ringing and radio-tracking scheme. The experiments were complied with the current laws of the country in which they were performed. We also thank two anonymous reviewers who gave insightful comments that improved an early version of the manuscript. Author contributions: All of the authors collected the data, particularly K.S. the habitat map, F.L. and C.K. diet bird and arthropod availability. P.F., I.H. and C.K. analyzed the data, designed the methods and conducted the research. All of the authors took part in the formulation of the questions and hypotheses. P.F. wrote the paper in cooperation with I.H. and C.K. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Ethics statement: All data and information from external sources used for the analyses and preparation of the manuscript are properly cited. The conclusions are entirely based on our own results. All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed.

Citizen monitoring programs using acoustic data have been useful for detecting population and community patterns. However, they have rarely been used to study broad scale patterns of species traits. We assessed the potential of acoustic data to detect broad scale patterns in body size. We compared geographical patterns in body size with acoustic signals in the bat species . Given the correlation between body size and acoustic characteristics, we expected to see similar results when analyzing the relationships of body size and acoustic signals with climatic variables. We assessed body size using forearm length measurements of 1,359 bats, captured by mist nets in France. For acoustic analyses, we used an extensive dataset collected through the French citizen bat survey. We isolated each bat echolocation call (  = 4,783) and performed automatic measures of signals, including the frequency of the flattest part of the calls (characteristic frequency). We then examined the relationship between forearm length, characteristic frequencies, and two components resulting from principal component analysis for geographic (latitude, longitude) and climatic variables. Forearm length was positively correlated with higher precipitation, lower seasonality, and lower temperatures. Lower characteristic frequencies (i.e., larger body size) were mostly related to lower temperatures and northern latitudes. While conducted on different datasets, the two analyses provided congruent results. Acoustic data from citizen science programs can thus be useful for the detection of large-scale patterns in body size. This first analysis offers a new perspective for the use of large acoustic databases to explore biological patterns and to address both theoretical and applied questions.