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Global conservation targets aim to expand protected areas and maintain species’ genetic diversity. Whether protected areas capture genetic diversity is unclear. We examined this question using a global sample of nuclear population‐level microsatellite data comprising genotypes from 2513 sites, 134,183 individuals, and 176 mammal and marine fish species. The genetic diversity and differentiation of samples inside and outside protected areas were similar, with some evidence for higher diversity in protected areas for small‐bodied mammals. Mammal populations, particularly large species, tended to be more genetically diverse when near multiple protected areas, regardless of whether samples were collected in or outside protected areas. Older marine protected areas tended to capture more genetically diverse fish populations. However, limited data availability in many regions hinders the systematic incorporation of genetic diversity into protected area design. Focusing on minimizing population decline and maintaining connectivity between protected areas remain essential proxies for maintaining genetic diversity.

The Coalition for Conservation Genetics (CCG) brings together four eminent organizations with the shared goal of improving the integration of genetic information into conservation policy and practice. We provide a historical context of conservation genetics as a field and reflect on current barriers to conserving genetic diversity, highlighting the need for collaboration across traditional divides, international partnerships, and coordinated advocacy. We then introduce the CCG and illustrate through examples how a coalition approach can leverage complementary expertise and improve the organizational impact at multiple levels. The CCG has proven particularly successful at implementing large synthesis‐type projects, training early‐career scientists, and advising policy makers. Achievements to date highlight the potential for the CCG to make effective contributions to practical conservation policy and management that no one “parent” organization could achieve on its own. Finally, we reflect on the lessons learned through forming the CCG, and our vision for the future.

Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are managed by the International Whaling Commission as 7 primary populations that breed in the tropics and migrate to 6 feeding areas around the Antarctic. There is little information on individual movements within breeding areas or migratory connections to feeding grounds. We sought to better understand humpback whale habitat use and movements at breeding areas off West Africa, and during the annual migration to Antarctic feeding areas. We also assessed potential overlap between whale habitat and anthropogenic activities. We used Argos satellite‐monitored radio tags to collect data on 13 animals off Gabon, a primary humpback whale breeding area. We quantified habitat use for 3 cohorts of whales and used a state‐space model to determine transitions in the movement behavior of individuals. We developed a spatial metric of overlap between whale habitat and models of cumulative human activities, including oil platforms, toxicants, and shipping. We detected strong heterogeneity in movement behavior over time that is consistent with previous genetic evidence of multiple populations in the region. Breeding areas for humpback whales in the eastern Atlantic were extensive and extended north of Gabon late in the breeding season. We also observed, for the first time, direct migration between West Africa and sub‐Antarctic feeding areas. Potential overlap of whale habitat with human activities was the highest in exclusive economic zones close to shore, particularly in areas used by both individual whales and the hydrocarbon industry. Whales potentially overlapped with different activities during each stage of their migration, which makes it difficult to implement mitigation measures over their entire range. Our results and existing population‐level data may inform delimitation of populations and actions to mitigate potential threats to whales as part of local, regional, and international management of highly migratory marine species. Cuantificación de los Movimientos de Gran Amplitud y el Traslape Potencial con Actividad Antropogénica y las Ballenas Jorobadas en el Océano Atlántico Sur

Genetic diversity among and within populations of all species is necessary for people and nature to survive and thrive in a changing world. Over the past three years, commitments for conserving genetic diversity have become more ambitious and specific under the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) draft post-2020 global biodiversity framework (GBF). This Perspective article comments on how goals and targets of the GBF have evolved, the improvements that are still needed, lessons learned from this process, and connections between goals and targets and the actions and reporting that will be needed to maintain, protect, manage and monitor genetic diversity. It is possible and necessary that the GBF strives to maintain genetic diversity within and among populations of all species, to restore genetic connectivity, and to develop national genetic conservation strategies, and to report on these using proposed, feasible indicators.

Aim Species distribution modelling is a useful tool for determining important habitats. By accounting for specific animal behaviour in the model, it is possible to identify finer‐scale patterns of habitat use. Together with spatially explicit data on anthropogenic activities, models can be used to assess human impacts and inform conservation management. This study used observations of breeding behaviour to identify fine‐scale breeding habitats of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), as well as potential overlap of these habitats with cumulative anthropogenic impacts. Location Eastern Tropical Atlantic, West Africa. Methods Maxent was used to model humpback distribution using pertinent environmental predictors and an integrated dataset of humpback whale occurrences filtered for breeding‐specific behaviours. In conjunction with multiple anthropogenic activities, a subsequent cumulative utilization and impact analysis assessed the degree of overlap between predicted breeding habitat and potential anthropogenic impacts. Results Greatest habitat suitability occurred in warm coastal waters of Gabon, and other highly suitable areas occurred off Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island), Cameroon and Angola. Sea surface temperature and height contributed most to the model. Highest overlap between humpback whales and potential impacts from anthropogenic activities occurred off Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island), Cameroon and Angola. Impacts associated with oil and gas development (where oil and gas platforms serve as an indicator for industry activity) appeared to contribute most to potential cumulative impact. Main Conclusions Depth and sea surface temperature of predicted breeding habitats were consistent with previous studies. However, lesser known characteristics such as sea surface height and wind speed, resulting in potentially more sheltered areas for breeding whales, may also be important in delineating finer‐scale habitat suitability. Identified areas of high potential cumulative impact occurred within exclusive economic zones of multiple countries and likely represent the minimum level of impact to humpback whales in the region, highlighting the need for additional research and effective management throughout the area.

Aim Fine-scale population structure is often unaccounted for in the delineation of conservation units, potentially compromising long-term species persistence. Identifying biogeographic and environmental drivers of population boundaries is therefore of key conservation concern. We aimed to explore barriers to dispersal for the harvested yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) using an ecological niche model. Our secondary aim was to test the relative geographic and environmental contributions of a multisource occurrence data set in species range predictions. Location Paraguay River drainage, central South America. Methods We developed an ecological niche model for the yellow anaconda using Maxent and a multisource species occurrence data set. Following nine iterations of model development, nine environmental variables were selected for model inclusion. We used the models to identify potential barriers to dispersal and employed jackknifing to identify the primary environmental variables that best explain barrier presence. We assessed the geographic and environmental overlap of models built with each data subset. Results Characterization of suitable habitat was found to be most powerful in northern Argentina and southern Paraguay. A persistent barrier to dispersal was identified in northern Argentina and corresponded to the presence of dry Cambisol soils. Data subsets were found to contribute different information to the final model in terms of geographic and environmental space. Main Conclusions Ecologically meaningful barriers to dispersal support recent genetic hypotheses of population subdivision. These barriers should be considered when delineating species management units to ensure sustainable harvest levels. Multisource data sets may produce more powerful niche predictions and represent a useful resource for data-poor species. Further, model results should be interpreted alongside complementary analyses for more effective conservation strategies.

An improved understanding of how behavior influences the genetic structure of populations would offer insight into the inextricable link between ecological processes and evolutionary patterns. This dissertation aims to demonstrate the need to consider behavior alongside genetics by examining the population genetic structure of two species of highly migratory cetacean across multiple scales and presenting an exploration of some potential lines of enquiry into the behavioral mechanisms underlying the patterns of genetic population structure observed. The first empirical chapter presents a population genetic analysis conducted on a data set of new and existing samples of Bryde’s whale ( Balaenoptera edeni spp.) collected from the Western and Central Indo-Pacific and the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Levels of evolutionary divergence between two subspecies (B. e. brydei and B. e. edeni) and the degree of population structure present within each subspecies were explored. The subsequent three empirical chapters represent a series of population- and individual-level genetic analyses on a data set of more than 4,000 individual humpback whales (Megaptera novaengliae) sampled from across the South Atlantic and Western and Northern Indian Oceans over two decades. Patterns of genetic population structure and connectivity between breeding populations are examined across the region, and are complemented by an assessment of genetic structure on shared feeding areas for these populations in the Southern Ocean. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that a hierarchy of behavioral processes operating at different spatial scales is likely influencing patterns of genetic population structure in highly migratory baleen whales. Notably, for humpback whales, the widely assumed model of maternal fidelity to feeding areas and natal philopatry to breeding areas was found not to be applicable at all spatial scales. From an applied perspective, the complex population patterns observed are not currently accounted for in current management designation and recommendations for applying these findings to the management and protection of these species are presented. As these empirical studies highlight the importance of behavior as a potential mechanism for shaping the genetic structure of species, the final chapter offers a research prospectus describing how behavioral and genetic data may be integrated using new individual-based modeling techniques to integrate data and information from the fields of behavioral ecology and population genetics.

Abstract Genetic diversity is critically important for all species-domesticated and wild- to adapt to environmental change, and for ecosystem resilience to extreme events. International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have committed to conserve and sustainably and equitably use all levels of biodiversity-genes, species and ecosystems-globally. However, assessment and monitoring of genetic diversity are often overlooked, and there are large knowledge and policy gaps regarding genetic diversity conservation. In this study, we present the first quantitative analysis of genetic diversity assessments conducted by Parties to the CBD. We conducted a detailed, systematic analysis of 114 CBD 5th (submitted 2014) and 6th (submitted 2018) National Reports to quantitatively assess actions, progress on targets, values and indicators related to genetic diversity. First, we found that the importance of genetic diversity is recognised by most Parties to the CBD, and that recognition increased over time. However, genetic targets mainly addressed genetic diversity within cultivated plants, farm animals, and crop wild relatives, with little focus on other wild species. Also, actions for conserving genetic diversity primarily concerned ex-situ facilities and policy, rather than monitoring and intervention for maintaining genetic diversity in situ. The most commonly used indicators of genetic diversity status were the number of genetic resources in conservation facilities, number of threatened breeds, and Red List Index, which are not well correlated to genetic erosion in most species -- highlighting that genetic change is poorly monitored by current indicators. Lastly, analyses of genetic data observations, indigenous use and knowledge of genetic diversity, and strategies being developed and implemented to conserve genetic diversity are highly under-reported. We make several recommendations for the post-2020 CBD Biodiversity Framework to improve awareness, assessment, and monitoring, and facilitate consistent and complete reporting of progress of genetic diversity in future National Reports. Article Impact Statement An analysis of genetic diversity in CBD National Reports neglects non-domesticated species and demonstrates need for sufficient indicators. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Footnotes * Authors names are listed in the Cover Page to maintain double blind peer review * Change in title wording, update author name, shortening of manuscript length, general revision * Glossary Action an activity undertaken (or planned to be undertaken) by a country to make progress towards one or more targets (e.g. development of policy; management intervention; training; implementation of a conservation program) Aichi targets a set of 20 targets agreed by the CBD to be achieved by 2020 CBD The Convention on Biological Diversity Genetic diversity inherited genetic and trait differences that vary among individuals and populations within a species Genetic erosion a loss of genetic diversity Genetic resource genetic material of actual or potential value. Genetic material is any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity (CBD, Art 2, see also https://biodiversity.europa.eu/topics/genetic-resources). Often used to refer to species diversity, e.g. number of plant wild relative species Indicator a measure used to present a high level summary of biodiversity; we include in our questionnaire official CBD indicators and other indicators National Reports reports submitted by signatories (countries) to the CBD every 4 years to outline progress towards CBD and national targets: 5th Reports were submitted starting in 2014 and 6th Reports were submitted starting in 2018 National targets targets that each country sets for themselves: a national-level interpretation of the 20 CBD Aichi targets Progress an assessment of whether a country considers itself as on track to meet a CBD or national target, for example: “on track to achieve”; “some progress but insufficient”; “moving away” Status a measure of genetic diversity (or more frequently a proxy assumed to relate to it) at a single time point, e.g., the number of seeds in a seed bank at a given point in time. Threat a process or driver of change that is, or has potential to be, detrimental to genetic diversity Trend a measure of change in status over a period of time, i.e. an observation that status has increased, decreased, or has not changed. Value a perceived utility or benefit from genetic diversity