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PurposeManual lymphatic drainage (MLD) massage is widely accepted as a conservative treatment for lymphedema. This systematic review aims to examine the methodologies used in recent research and evaluate the effectiveness of MLD for those at-risk of or living with lymphedema.MethodsThe electronic databases Embase, PubMed, CINAHL Complete and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched using relevant terms. Studies comparing MLD with another intervention or control in patients at-risk of or with lymphedema were included. Studies were critically appraised with the PEDro scale.ResultsSeventeen studies with a total of 867 female and two male participants were included. Only studies examining breast cancer-related lymphedema were identified. Some studies reported positive effects of MLD on volume reduction, quality of life and symptom-related outcomes compared with other treatments, while other studies reported no additional benefit of MLD as a component of complex decongestive therapy. In patients at-risk, MLD was reported to reduce incidence of lymphedema in some studies, while others reported no such benefits.ConclusionsThe reviewed articles reported conflicting findings and were often limited by methodological issues. This review highlights the need for further experimental studies on the effectiveness of MLD in lymphedema.Implications for Cancer SurvivorsThere is some evidence that MLD in early stages following breast cancer surgery may help prevent progression to clinical lymphedema. MLD may also provide additional benefits in volume reduction for mild lymphedema. However, in moderate to severe lymphedema, MLD may not provide additional benefit when combined with complex decongestive therapy.

Purpose This research describes and evaluates a liposuction surgery and multidisciplinary rehabilitation approach for advanced lymphedema of the upper and lower extremities. Methods A prospective clinical study was conducted at an Advanced Lymphedema Assessment Clinic (ALAC) comprised of specialists in plastic surgery, rehabilitation, imaging, oncology, and allied health, at Macquarie University, Australia. Between May 2012 and 31 May 2014, a total of 104 patients attended the ALAC. Eligibility criteria for liposuction included (i) unilateral, non-pitting, International Society of Lymphology stage II/III lymphedema; (ii) limb volume difference greater than 25 %; and (iii) previously ineffective conservative therapies. Of 55 eligible patients, 21 underwent liposuction (15 arm, 6 leg) and had at least 3 months postsurgical follow-up (85.7 % cancer-related lymphedema). Liposuction was performed under general anesthesia using a published technique, and compression garments were applied intraoperatively and advised to be worn continuously thereafter. Limb volume differences, bioimpedance spectroscopy (L-Dex), and symptom and functional measurements (using the Patient-Specific Functional Scale) were taken presurgery and 4 weeks postsurgery, and then at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months postsurgery. Results Mean presurgical limb volume difference was 45.1 % (arm 44.2 %; leg 47.3 %). This difference reduced to 3.8 % (arm 3.6 %; leg 4.3 %) by 6 months postsurgery, a mean percentage volume reduction of 89.6 % (arm 90.2 %; leg 88.2 %) [ p  < 0.001]. All patients had improved symptoms and function. Bioimpedance spectroscopy showed reduced but ongoing extracellular fluid, consistent with the underlying lymphatic pathology. Conclusions Liposuction is a safe and effective option for carefully selected patients with advanced lymphedema. Assessment, treatment, and follow-up by a multidisciplinary team is essential.

PurposeThe aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of delivering a prospective surveillance model in the home over 6 months for women at high risk of developing lymphoedema.MethodsA single-group, intervention study recruited 20 women who had surgical and medical treatment for confirmed node-positive invasive breast cancer and therefore at high risk of developing arm lymphoedema. Participants received a package including Bioimpedance Spectroscopy (BIS) monitoring, lymphoedema education and support to promote self-management and physical activity.ResultsParticipants adhered to BIS monitoring 74% of the time, and felt extremely confident in using the device. By 6 months, mean BIS L-Dex scores had increased from 3.5 (SD 5.6) to 8.4 (SD 11.1); five women (25%) who experienced >  + 6.5 increase in L-Dex score were fitted with a compression garment. Self-reported symptoms and distress decreased by 0.4 out of 10 (95% CI 0.1 to 0.7); number of self-management strategies used increased by 0.6 (95% CI 0.1 to 1.2); and planned exercise increased by 2.8 h/week (95% CI 0.4 to 5.2).ConclusionsThese findings indicate a prospective surveillance model of care in the home with BIS is feasible and associated with increased self-management. A Phase II randomised trial is warranted as well as research exploring the costs associated with implementing this model of care for high-risk individuals.

Purpose Lymphedema is a common side effect of breast cancer treatment that may negatively impact on a woman’s physical and psychological well-being. This study aimed to understand the impact of breast cancer-related lymphedema on women’s sexual functioning, and to identify key concerns of these women regarding sexual issues. Methods Purposive sampling recruited 17 women aged 38–67 years with mild to severe lymphedema. Telephone interviews concerning sexual issues were transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis undertaken. Results Women perceived sexual concerns arising from lymphedema to exacerbate concerns arising from breast cancer. Four interrelated factors determined the extent of lymphedema’s sexual impact: (a) swelling severity and location, (b) needing to wear a compression garment, (c) body image concerns raised by lymphedema and breast cancer treatment, and (d) their sexual partner’s acceptance and supportiveness. In particular, a supportive partner was instrumental in assisting women to overcome sexual issues caused by severe swelling and/or body image concerns. Few women reported being asked about sexual issues by any health professional, and most women indicated that they were unwilling to discuss sexual concerns with health professionals, friends, or family. Conclusions Lymphedema had the potential to accentuate sexual issues caused by breast cancer, but most women were reluctant to discuss issues with anyone other than their partner. These findings are relevant to health professionals designing breast cancer psychosexual interventions and future research addressing lymphedema-specific sexual concerns.

Background Breast cancer related lymphoedema (BCRL) is a common side effect of cancer treatment. Recently indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescent lymphography has become a popular method for imaging the lymphatics, however there are no standard protocols nor imaging criteria. We have developed a prospective protocol to aid in the diagnosis and therapeutic management of BCRL. Methods Lymphatic imaging procedures were conducted in three phases. Following initial observation of spontaneous movement of ICG in phase one, manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) massage was applied to facilitate ICG transit via the lymphatics in phase two. All imaging data was collected in phase three. Continuous lymphatic imaging of the upper limb was conducted for approximately an hour and lymphatic drainage pathways were determined. Correlations between the drainage pathway and MD Anderson Cancer Centre (MDACC) ICG lymphoedema stage were investigated. Results One hundred and three upper limbs with BCRL were assessed with this new protocol. Despite most of the patients having undergone axillary node dissection, the ipsilateral axilla drainage pathway was the most common (67% of upper limbs). We found drainage to the ipsilateral axilla decreased as MDACC stage increased. Our results suggest that the axillary pathway remained patent for over two-thirds of patients, rather than completely obstructed as conventionally thought to be the case for BCRL. Conclusions We developed a new ICG lymphography protocol for diagnosing BCRL focusing on identification of an individual patient’s lymphatic drainage pathway after lymph node surgery. The new ICG lymphography protocol will allow a personalised approach to manual lymphatic drainage massage and potentially surgery.

PurposeBreast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) represents a lifelong risk for breast cancer survivors and once acquired becomes a lifelong burden. This review summarizes current BCRL prevention and treatment strategies.FindingsRisk factors for BCRL have been extensively studied and their identification has affected breast cancer treatment practice, with sentinel lymph node removal now standard of care for patients with early stage breast cancer without sentinel lymph node metastases. Early surveillance and timely management aim to reduce BCRL incidence and progression, and are further facilitated by patient education, which many breast cancer survivors report not having adequately received. Surgical approaches to BCRL prevention include axillary reverse mapping, lymphatic microsurgical preventative healing (LYMPHA) and Simplified LYMPHA (SLYMPHA). Complete decongestive therapy (CDT) remains the standard of care for patients with BCRL. Among CDT components, facilitating manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) using indocyanine green fluorescence lymphography has been proposed. Intermittent pneumatic compression, nonpneumatic active compression devices, and low-level laser therapy appear promising in lymphedema management. Reconstructive microsurgical techniques such as lymphovenous anastomosis and vascular lymph node transfer are growing surgical considerations for patients as well as liposuction-based procedures for addressing fatty fibrosis formation from chronic lymphedema. Long-term self-management adherence remains problematic, and lack of diagnosis and measurement consensus precludes a comparison of outcomes. Currently, no pharmacological approaches have proven successful.ConclusionProgress in prevention and treatment of BCRL continues, requiring advances in early diagnosis, patient education, expert consensus and novel treatments designed for lymphatic rehabilitation following insults.

Background and Purpose. Arm lymphedema following breast cancer surgery is a continuing problem. In this study, we assessed the reliability and validity of circumferential measurements and water displacement for measuring upper-limb volume. Subjects. Participants included subjects who had had breast cancer surgery, including axillary dissection—19 with and 22 without a diagnosis of arm lymphedema—and 25 control subjects. Methods. Two raters measured each subject by using circumferential tape measurements at specified distances from the fingertips and in relation to anatomic landmarks and by using water displacement. Interrater reliability was calculated by analysis of variance and multilevel modeling. Volumes from circumferential measurements were compared with those from water displacement by use of means and correlation coefficients, respectively. The standard error of measurement, minimum detectable change (MDC), and limits of agreement (LOA) for volumes also were calculated. Results. Arm volumes obtained with these methods had high reliability. Compared with volumes from water displacement, volumes from circumferential measurements had high validity, although these volumes were slightly larger. Expected differences between subjects with and without clinical lymphedema following breast cancer were found. The MDC of volumes or the error associated with a single measure for data based on anatomic landmarks was lower than that based on distance from fingertips. The mean LOA with water displacement were lower for data based on anatomic landmarks than for data based on distance from fingertips. Discussion and Conclusion. Volumes calculated from anatomic landmarks are reliable, valid, and more accurate than those obtained from circumferential measurements based on distance from fingertips. [Taylor R, Jayasinghe UW, Koelmeyer L, et al. Reliability and validity of arm volume measurements for assessment of lymphedema. Phys Ther. 2006;86:205–214.]

Background The PREVENT randomized control trial monitored progression to chronic breast cancer-related lymphedema (cBCRL) following intervention for subclinical breast cancer-related lymphedema (sBCRL) assessed by bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) versus tape-measure (TM). This multi-institutional trial demonstrated a 92% risk reduction of developing cBCRL. This secondary analysis reviews the timing of sBCRL and cBCRL following breast cancer (BC) treatment. Patients and Methods Women at risk of cBCRL ( n = 919) were screened regularly up to 36 months after BC treatment using either BIS or TM. Following diagnosis of sBCRL, patients underwent a 4-week compression sleeve intervention. The time in months from BC treatment to detection was reviewed at 3-month intervals. Results In total 209 patients developed sBCRL (BIS: n = 89, TM: n = 120) and were eligible for intervention. 30 progressed to cBCRL postintervention (BIS: 7, TM: 23). More than half of patients had measurements consistent with sBCRL within 9 months of BC treatment. Patients continued to have initial detections of sBCRL, regardless of screening method, with rates remaining consistent in years two and three ( p > 0.242) post surgery. Additionally, 39 patients progressed to cBCRL without developing sBCRL or receiving intervention across the 3-year period. Conclusions The timing of sBCRL detection demonstrates that patients continue to be at risk years after treatment and may continue to progress to cBCRL years after surgery. Early detection of sBCRL allows for early intervention decreasing the likelihood of progression to cBCRL. Patients should continue to be monitored for a minimum of 3 years following completion of cancer treatment. Specifically, careful targeted monitoring over the initial 9-month period is important.

Lymphedema evaluation entails multifaceted considerations for which options continue to evolve and emerge. This paper provides a critical review of the current status of diagnostic and quantitative measures for lymphedema, from traditional and novel bedside assessment tools for volumetric and fluid assessment, to advanced imaging modalities. Modalities are contrasted with regard to empirical support and feasibility of clinical implementation. The manuscript proposes a grid framework for comparing the ability of each modality to quantify specific lymphedema characteristics, including distribution, dysmorphism, tissue composition and fluid content, lymphatic anatomy and function, metaplasia, clinical symptoms, and quality of life and function. This review additionally applies a similar framework approach to consider how well assessment tools support important clinical needs, including: (1) screening, (2) diagnosis and differential diagnosis, (3) individualization of treatment, and (4) monitoring treatment response. The framework highlights which clinical needs are served by an abundance of assessment tools and identifies others that have problematically few. The framework clarifies which tools have greater or lesser empirical support. The framework is designed to assist stakeholders in selecting appropriate diagnostic and surveillance modalities, gauging levels of confidence when applying tools to specific clinical needs, elucidating overarching patterns of diagnostic and quantitative strengths and weaknesses, and informing future investigation.