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PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY Body-worn cameras (BWCs) do not have clear or consistent effects on most officer or citizen behaviors, but different practices need further evaluation Law enforcement agencies have rapidly adopted BWCs in the last decade with the hope that they might improve police conduct, accountability, and transparency, especially regarding use of force. Studies eligible for this review included those that examined the use of BWCs by law enforcement officers using either randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-experimental research designs, and that measured police or citizen behaviors, rather than their perceptions. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT Background In the past decade, many communities have experienced high-profile police-involved shootings and deaths in custody, as well as citizen protests and demands for greater police accountability and transparency. Results Findings from this Campbell systematic review indicate that BWCs can reduce the number of citizen complaints against police officers (% change = −16.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] [−30.0 to −0.7]), although it remains unclear whether this finding signals an improvement in the quality of police–citizen interactions or a change in reporting.

Objective Because of limitations to government data on police-related violence, researchers commonly use open-source data as the best approximation for studying the prevalence, causes, and prevention of police killings and other police-related violence in the United States. However, the comprehensiveness and accuracy of these open sources are not well known. Methods We compared fatal police shootings in three commonly used open sources to self-reports from a national sample of 573 U.S. police agencies from 2015 to 2019. Using ANOVA and regression methods, we assessed patterns of agreement and discrepancy by open source, year, and agency characteristics. We also examined media reports to assess factors contributing to overcounts in open sources. Results Annual open-source counts were higher or lower than self-reports for 5%-9% of agencies depending on year and open source. Discrepancies varied between open sources but not consistently across years. Discrepancies were more likely and greater in magnitude for large agencies and state police, with less consistent evidence of regional variation. Overcounts in open sources appear linked to incidents involving multiple police agencies, multiple shooters, officer deaths, unclear causes of death, and agency misidentification. Conclusions Open-source data on fatal police shootings are largely accurate but should be used cautiously, particularly in agency-level analyses. Coordinated efforts by police agencies, open-source compilers, and other researchers could potentially improve the accuracy of data on fatal police shootings.

PurposeDetective work is a mainstay of modern law enforcement, but its effectiveness has been much less evaluated than patrol work. To explore what is known about effective investigative practices and to identify evidence gaps, the authors assess the current state of empirical research on investigations.Design/methodology/approachThe authors assess the empirical research about the effectiveness of criminal investigations and detective work in resolving cases and improving clearance rates.FindingsThe authors’ analysis of the literature produced 80 studies that focus on seven categories of investigations research, which include the impact that case and situational factors, demographic and neighborhood dynamics, organizational policies and practices, investigative effort, technology, patrol officers and community members have on case resolution. The authors’ assessment shows that evaluation research examining the effectiveness of various investigative activities is rare. However, the broader empirical literature indicates that a combination of organizational policies, investigative effort and certain technologies can be promising in improving investigative outcomes even in cases deemed less solvable.Research limitations/implicationsFrom an evidence-based perspective, this review emphasizes the need for greater transparency, evaluation and accountability of investigative activities given the resources and importance afforded to criminal investigations.Originality/valueThis review is currently the most up-to-date review of the state of the research on what is known about effective investigative practices.

ObjectivesThere has been extensive debate in the USA as to how laws regulating the carrying of concealed firearms affect crime and public safety. This study examines whether US state laws making it easier for civilians to obtain permits to carry concealed handguns in public increase defensive gun uses against violent threats and attacks in public.MethodsWe used National Crime Victimization Survey data from 39 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the USA over a 19-year period (1986–2004) to examine whether laws making it easier for civilians to obtain concealed carry permits are linked to higher levels of defensive gun use against violence in public spaces of metropolitan areas. Bivariate χ2 tests and multivariate logistic regression models (controlling for actor and situational characteristics) were used with 7196 public incidents to examine whether the likelihood of the victim using a gun against an attacker(s) varied based on the type of concealed carry law in the MSA at the time of the incident.ResultsThe prevalence of self-defensive gun use in this sample was not clearly related to the passage of permissive gun carrying laws. Although defensive gun use was more common in MSAs with permissive gun carrying laws, this difference was not consistently related in magnitude or statistical significance to the passage of those laws or the length of time they had been in effect.ConclusionsPermissive concealed carry permit laws do not produce evident increases in self-defensive gun uses against crime in public locations.

Police use-of-force is a growing public health concern, with recent estimates suggesting that over 70,000 people are injured by police each year. To reduce the risk of injury to civilians, most police agencies authorize the use of various less-lethal weapons. However, to date, there is little consensus as to which types of less-lethal weapons are most effective at reducing injury risk. In this study, we test the differential effects of less-lethal weapons on civilian injury and injury severity using data on 2348 use-of-force incidents originating from 17 large urban and metropolitan law enforcement agencies from 2015 to 2019. Specifically, we assess the injury risks associated with conducted energy devices, chemical agents, impact weapons, and police canines, while controlling for a robust set of officer, civilian, and situational characteristics. Our results indicate that chemical agents reduce the risk of hospitalization or death significantly more than other weapon types, while police canines increase the risk of all injury outcomes significantly more than other weapon types. Adjusting for incident characteristics, chemical agents are predicted to cause hospitalization or death in 4% of cases, compared to 13% for conducted energy devices, 16% for impact weapons, and 37% for police canines. These findings suggest that civilian injury may be reduced through use-of-force policies that prioritize less severe modalities of force, though more research is needed on the contextual and long-term effects of these weapons.

PurposeWe present the results of one of the only in-depth studies of a police agency’s internal and external response to the coronavirus pandemic of 2020 (COVID-19). This study emphasizes the importance of law enforcement agencies conducting comprehensive case studies and after-action assessments to prepare, prevent and respond to prolonged public health crises and showcases the profound (and lingering) effects of COVID-19 on police organizations.Design/methodology/approachThis multi-method case study combines document analysis, a workforce survey, a community survey, interviews and analysis of administrative data to detail and assess the agency’s internal and operational responses to the pandemic and the reactions of employees and community members to those responses.FindingsDespite agency strategies to mitigate the pandemic’s effects, employees cited very high stress levels one year after the pandemic and a third of sworn officers considered leaving the policing profession altogether during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. Several policies intended by the agency to protect employee health and maintain staffing needs kept workforce levels steady but may have increased feelings of organizational injustice in both sworn and non-sworn individuals, with variation across racial and gender groups. A jurisdiction-wide community survey indicated general support for the police department’s responses but a preference for in-person rather than telephone-based responses to service calls. Officers, however, preferred continuing remote responses even after the pandemic subsided.Originality/valueTo the best of our knowledge, this is one of the only in-depth case studies that examine a police agency’s internal and external responses to COVID-19 and the sworn, non-sworn and community reactions to those responses.

The next phase of evidence-based policing requires both scholars and practitioners to move from lists of specific studies about “what works” to using that information strategically. This requires developing generalizations or principles on the nature of effective police strategies and translating the field of police evaluation research into digestible forms that can be used to alter police tactics, strategies, accountability systems, and training. In this article, we present a tool intended for such use: the Evidence-Based Policing Matrix. The Matrix is a consistently updated, research-to-practice translation tool that categorizes and visually bins all experimental and quasi-experimental research on police and crime reduction into intersections between three common dimensions of crime prevention—the nature of the target, the extent to which the strategy is proactive or reactive, and the specificity or generality of the strategy. Our mapping and visualization of 97 police evaluation studies conducted through December 31, 2009, indicate that proactive, place-based, and specific policing approaches appear much more promising in reducing crime than individual-based, reactive, and general ones. We conclude by discussing how the Matrix can be used to guide future research and facilitate the adoption of evidence-based policing.

Objective To better understand the workings of illicit gun markets by identifying the characteristics of buyers, sellers, firearms, and transactions that predict whether a gun is used in crime or obtained by an illegal possessor subsequent to purchase. Methods The study employed multivariate survival analysis utilizing data on nearly 72,000 guns sold in the Baltimore metropolitan area from 1994 through 1999 and subsequent recoveries of over 1,800 of those guns by police in Baltimore through early 2000. Results Adjusting for exposure time, guns sold in the Baltimore area had a 3.2 % chance of being recovered by police in Baltimore within 5 years. Guns were more likely to be recovered if: they were semiautomatic, medium to large caliber, easily concealable, and cheap; the buyers were black, young, female, living in or close to the city, and had previously purchased guns that were recovered by police; the dealer making the sale was, most notably, in or near the city and had made prior sales of crime guns; and the gun was purchased in a multiple gun transaction. The adoption of a law regulating secondhand gun sales in Maryland did not appear to affect the likelihood of a gun's recovery, though the extent of the law's enforcement is unclear. Conclusions Risk factors identified in this study could be used to guide gun trafficking investigations, regulation of gun dealers, and the development of prevention efforts for high-risk actors and areas. The results also provide some support for policies that regulate particular types of firearms and transactions. Limitations to the study and directions for future research are discussed.

PurposeTo measure the practice and management of proactive policing in local American police agencies and assess them in comparison to recommendations of the National Academies of Sciences (NAS) Committee on Proactive Policing.Design/methodology/approachA survey was conducted with a national sample of American police agencies having 100 or more sworn officers to obtain detailed information about the types of proactive work that officers engage in, to quantify their proactive work and to understand how the agencies measure and manage those activities. Responding agencies (n = 180) were geographically diverse and served populations of approximately half a million persons on average.FindingsProactivity as practiced is much more limited in scope than what the NAS envisions. Most agencies track only a few forms of proactivity and cannot readily estimate how much uncommitted time officers have available for proactive work. Measured proactivity is mostly limited to traffic stops, business and property checks and some form of directed or general preventive patrol. Many agencies have no formal policy in place to define or guide proactive activities, nor do they evaluate officer performance on proactivity with a detailed and deliberate rubric.Originality/valueThis is the first national survey that attempts to quantify proactive policing as practiced broadly in the United States. It provides context to the NAS recommendations and provides knowledge about the gap between practice and those recommendations.

Focusing police efforts on “hot spots” has gained acceptance among researchers and practitioners. However, little rigorous evidence exists on the comparative effectiveness of different hot spots strategies. To address this gap, we randomly assigned 83 hot spots of violence in Jacksonville, Florida, to receive either a problem-oriented policing (POP) strategy, directed-saturation patrol, or a control condition for 90 days. We then examined crime in these areas during the intervention period and a 90-day post-intervention period. In sum, the use of POP was associated with a 33% reduction in “street violence” during the 90 days following the intervention. While not statistically significant, we also observed that POP was associated with other non-trivial reductions in violence and property crime during the post-intervention period. In contrast, we did not detect statistically significant crime reductions for the directed-saturation patrol group, though there were non-significant declines in crime in these areas during the intervention period. Tests for displacement or a diffusion of benefits provided indications that violence was displaced to areas near the POP locations, though some patterns in the data suggest this may have been due to the effects of POP on crime reporting by citizens in nearby areas. We conclude by discussing the study’s limitations and the implications of the findings for efforts to refine hot spots policing.