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The present study aimed to develop nanoemulsions (NEs) of essential oil (EO) and lipid-soluble extract (HE) of Pogostemon cablin leaves using biosurfactant, saponin. Hydro-distilled EO and fat-soluble HE were analyzed using GC-MS, which revealed 38.7 ± 2.7% and 37.5 ± 2.1% patchoulol, respectively. EO and HE were formulated with saponin to prepare corresponding coarse emulsions (CEs); furthermore, high-speed homogenization for 2 min was followed by ultrasonication for 3 min with constant frequency of 50 kHz. of the CEs resulted in respective NEs. NEs were characterized for the physico-chemical properties such as emulsion intrinsic stability, particle size distribution, polydispersity index (PDI), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for morphology and accurate nanodroplet diameters. CEs and NEs were investigated for insecticidal efficacy against adults of Tetranychus urticae and larvae of Spodoptera litura . Stable NEs of EO and HE at 500 μg mL −1 concentration exhibited corresponding average particle size of 51.7 and 89.9 nm, while TEM image revealed spherical-shaped droplets with the average droplet diameters of 15.3 and 29.4 nm, respectively. NEs of EO and HE displayed highest efficacy in contact toxicity (LC 50 43.2 and 58.4 μg mL −1 ) after 48 h and fumigant toxicity (LC 50 9.3 and 13.6 μg mL −1 ) after 24 h against T. urticae . In addition, NEs of EO showed considerable antifeedant and feeding deterrent action (AI 99.21 ± 0.74 and FI 99.73 ± 1.24) against S. litura larvae.

Cauliflower is a crop with intricate developmental transitions influenced by both external and internal cues. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) play a key role in developmental transitions and plant responses to environmental factors. The present study aimed to investigate the endogenous levels of gibberellins (GAs) (i) at six different developmental stages and (ii) at four time points in four varieties of cauliflower using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The Pusa Ashwini, Pusa Sharad, Pusa Shukti, and Pusa Snowball Kt-25 varieties represent all four thermosensory-based maturity groups: early (20–27 °C), mid-early (15–20 °C), mid-late (12–16 °C), and late or snowball (10–16 °C), respectively. GA 3 content was highest in Pusa Shukti (4.020 ppm) and lowest in Pusa Ashwini (3.091 ppm). A higher endogenous GA 3 concentration was recorded at the bolting stage (4.118 ppm), seedling stage (4.057 ppm), and curd initiation stage (3.722 ppm), suggesting its role in stalk elongation. The difference in GA 3 content was significant between curd (3.613 ppm) and leaf tissues (2.947 ppm) at the full curd stage and nonsignificant between stalk (3.948 ppm) and leaf tissues (4.118 ppm) at the bolting stage. Regarding the time points, the GA 3 content was highest in Pusa Sharad (4.311 ppm) and lowest in Pusa Ashwini (2.990 ppm). GA 3 content showed a significant positive correlation with duration to crucial developmental transitions, namely the curd initiation stage, the full curd stage, and the bolting stage. The study highlights the role of endogenous gibberellins in plant development and suggests their potential for benefiting seed production.

Insecticidal potential of seven commonly available alkaloids against melon thrips ( Thrips palmi Karny) was investigated through in vivo experiments and the bioactivity was explained via in silico approaches. In vivo screening showed highest mortality of T. plami larvae for reserpine (43%), closely followed by tropinone (41%) after 24 h of incubation. After 48 h, tropinone surpassed reserpine with 83% mortality, indicating its prolonged insecticidal activity. A detailed bioassay of tropinone revealed its LC 50 values as 1187.9 and 686.9 µg mL −1 after 24 and 48 h, respectively. While studying the molecular interactions between the alkaloids and four physiologically important target proteins of T. palmi , tropinone demonstrated the highest ligand efficiency and lowest predicted inhibitory constant, particularly when forming complexes with CathB protein. However, binding energy calculations of the docked complexes showed most favorable binding of reserpine with CathB. To clear the ambiguity, considering both binding energy and ligand efficiency as the evaluation parameters, a molecular dynamics study was carried out, which predicted higher stability of CathB-tropinone complex than CathB-reserpine complex in terms of the total energy of the system. These in silico findings aligned well with the in vivo results, confirming tropinone as a promising candidate for effective thrips management programs.

Nematicidal potential of essential oils (EOs) has been widely reported. Terpenoids present in most of the essential oils have been reported responsible for their bioactivity though very less is known about their modes of action. In the present study, an in vitro screening of nine Eos, namely, Citrus sinensis (OEO), Myrtus communis (MTEO), Eucalyptus citriodora (CEO), Melaleuca alternifolia (TEO), Acorus calamus (AEO), Commiphora myrrha (MREO), Cymbopogon nardus (CNEO), Artemisia absinthium (WEO), and Pogostemon cablin (PEO) against Meloidogyne incognita revealed OEO, CNEO, and TEO as most effective with LC 50 39.37, 43.22, and 76.28 μg ml –1 respectively. EOs had varying compositions of mono- and sesquiterpenes determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. The in silico molecular interactions screening of major EO constituents and the seven selected target proteins of the nematode indicated highest binding affinity of geraniol-ODR1 (odorant response gene 1) complex (ΔG = -36.9 kcal mol –1 ), due to extensive H-bonding, hydrophobic and π-alkyl interactions. The relative binding affinity followed the order: geraniol-ODR1 > β-terpineol-ODR1 > citronellal-ODR1 > l -limonene-ODR1 > γ-terpinene-ODR1. Taken together, the cumulative in vitro and computational bioefficacy analysis related to the chemoprofiles of EOs provides useful leads on harnessing the potential of EOs as bionematicides. The insight on biochemical ligand–target protein interactions described in the present work will be helpful in logical selection of biomolecules and essential oils for development of practically viable bionematicidal products.

Saponins are responsible for a wide range of biological activities, which is why the present research is focused on the chemical profiling of saponins and other metabolites from Gymnema sylvestre leaves for their potential efficacy in managing pathogenic fungi. Leaves of the plant was extracted with chloroform to obtain crude saponin concentrates. Characterizations of the chloroform soluble fraction of the leaves [chloroform extract of G. sylvestre (CGS)] in ultra-performance liquid chromatography–quadrupole time of flight–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QToF-ESI-MS/MS) displayed 23 metabolites, primarily comprising of saponins and other minor phytocomponents. Among these, two major saponins, gymnemic acid IV and gymnestrogenin, were isolated, purified, and characterized using 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). In vitro fungistatic efficacy showed the highest effectiveness against Penicillium digitatum 6952 (EC 50 297.2 μg/mL), followed by Penicillium expansum 2995 (360.5 μg/mL) and Aspergillus flavus 6678 (369.4 μg/mL). Furthermore, the mechanism of interaction of these metabolites to inhibit cyt P 450 sterol 1,4-α-demethylase was determined by in vitro and in silico molecular modeling analysis, explaining the probable reason for the reduction in ergosterol content in the treated fungi. In silico analysis suggested the highest binding efficiency of gymnemic acid IV due to the lowest binding energy, specifically interacted through conventional H-bonds, hydrophobic π-alkyl, π-π, and π-sigma interactions. Indeed, the valuable findings of the study would be useful for further development of Gymnema saponin based biopesticidal products.

Maize ( Zea mays L.) is the most widely consumed cereal in Cameroon but is frequently contaminated with aflatoxins, posing significant economic, environmental, and health risks. These challenges hinder progress toward the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Cameroon’s 2020–2030 National Development Strategy. A sustainable approach to managing aflatoxin contamination is biocontrol, which relies on naturally occurring atoxigenic fungi to suppress toxigenic strains. Although biocontrol strategies have been widely explored globally, their application in maize production and storage in Cameroon remains limited. This study aimed to establish a foundation for aflatoxin biocontrol by characterizing Aspergillus flavus strains associated with maize in Cameroon using a multi-omics approach. Characterization was performed using culturomic, microscopic, genomic, metabolomic, and targeted gene expression analysis techniques. Thirteen A. flavus L-morphotype strains were identified, including seven endophytic strains from maize seeds and six from the rhizosphere. All strains were confirmed as aflatoxigenic through ammonia vapor and UV tests, as well as metabolomic analysis, which identified cyclopiazonic acid, gliotoxin, and kotanin as core secondary metabolites, and quantified different aflatoxins in all the 13 strains. Gene analysis revealed seven distinct aflatoxin biosynthesis genotypes, with the aflC gene playing a key role in aflatoxin production. qRT-PCR results showed lower expression of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in rhizosphere strains compared to seed-associated strains, confirming the regulatory function of the aflR gene. Interestingly, maize seeds pre-treated or co-inoculated with certain less aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains exhibited signs of induced resistance, suggesting a possible immunization effect by endophytic aflatoxigenic strains. This finding highlights a potential avenue for biocontrol, warranting further research to elucidate the underlying metabolic pathways and optimize conditions for practical application.

A desirable substitute for chemical pesticides is mycopesticides. In the current investigation, rDNA-ITS (Internal transcribed spacer) and TEF (Transcriptional Elongation Factor) sequencing were used for molecular identification of six Beauveria bassiana strains. Both, leaf discs and potted plant bioassaye were carried out to study their pathogenicity against the cassava mite, Tetranychus truncatus . LC 50 and LC 90 values of potential B . bassiana strains were estimated. We also discovered a correlation between intraspecific B . bassiana strains pathogenicity and comprehensive metabolome profiles. Bb5, Bb6, Bb8, Bb12, Bb15, and Bb21 strains were identified as B . bassiana by sequencing of rDNA-ITS and TEF segments and sequence comparison to NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) GenBank. Out of the six strains tested for pathogenicity, Bb6, Bb12, and Bb15 strains outperformed against T . truncatus with LC 50 values 1.4×10 6 , 1.7×10 6 , and 1.4×10 6 and with a LC 90 values 7.3×10 7 , 1.4×10 8 , and 4.2×10 8 conidia/ml, respectively, at 3 days after inoculation and were considered as potential strains for effective mite control. Later, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the above six B . bassiana strains was done on secondary metabolites extracted with ethyl acetate revealed that the potential B . bassiana strains (Bb6, Bb12, and Bb15) have higher levels of acaricidal such as Bis(dimethylethyl)-phenol: Bb6 (5.79%), Bb12 (6.15%), and Bb15 (4.69%). Besides, insecticidal ( n -Hexadecanoic acid), and insect innate immunity overcoming compound (Nonadecene) were also identified; therefore, the synergistic effect of these compounds might lead toa higher pathogenicity of B . bassiana against T . truncatus . Further, these compounds also exhibited two clusters, which separate the potential and non-potential strains in the dendrogram of Thin Layer Chromatography. These results clearly demonstrated the potentiality of the B . bassiana strains against T . truncatus due to the occurrence of their bioactive volatile metabolome.

Environmental concerns related to synthetic pesticides and the emphasis on the adoption of an integrated pest management concept as a cardinal principle have strengthened the focus of global research and development on botanical pesticides. A scientific understanding of the mode of action of biomolecules over a range of pests is key to the successful development of biopesticides. The present investigation focuses on the in silico protein-ligand interactions of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), a major constituent of black mustard ( Brassica nigra) essential oil (MEO) against two pests, namely, Meloidogyne incognita (Mi) and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol), that cause severe yield losses in agricultural crops, especially in vegetables. The in vitro bioassay results of MEO against Mi exhibited an exposure time dependent on the lethal concentration causing 50% mortality (LC 50 ) values of 47.7, 30.3, and 20.4 μg ml −1 at 24, 48, and 72 h of exposure, respectively. The study revealed short-term nematostatic activity at lower concentrations, with nematicidal activity at higher concentrations upon prolonged exposure. Black mustard essential oil displayed excellent in vitro Fol mycelial growth inhibition, with an effective concentration to cause 50% inhibition (EC 50 ) value of 6.42 μg ml −1 . In order to decipher the mechanism of action of MEO, its major component, AITC (87.6%), which was identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), was subjected to in silico docking and simulation studies against seven and eight putative target proteins of Mi and Fol, respectively. Allyl isothiocyanate exhibited the highest binding affinity with the binding sites of acetyl cholinesterase (AChE), followed by odorant response gene-1 (ODR1) and neuropeptide G-protein coupled receptor (nGPCR) in Mi, suggesting the possible suppression of neurotransmission and chemosensing functions. Among the target proteins of Fol, AITC was the most effective protein in blocking chitin synthase (CS), followed by 2,3-dihydroxy benzoic acid decarboxylase (6m53) and trypsinase (1try), thus inferring these as the principal molecular targets of fungal growth. Taken together, the study establishes the potential of MEO as a novel biopesticide lead, which will be utilized further to manage the Mi–Fol disease complex.

In developing a Trichoderma viride- based biocontrol program for Fusarium wilt disease in chickpea, the choice of the quality formulation is imperative. In the present study, two types of formulations i.e. powder for seed treatment (TvP) and tablet for direct application (TvT), employing T. viride as the biocontrol agent, were evaluated for their ability to control chickpea wilt under field conditions at three dosages i.e. recommended (RD), double of recommended (DD) and half of recommended (1/2 RD). A screening study for the antagonistic fungi strains based on volatile and non-volatile bioassays revealed that T. viride ITCC 7764 has the most potential among the five strains tested (ITCC 6889, ITCC 7204, ITCC 7764, ITCC 7847, ITCC 8276), which was then used to develop the TvP and TvT formulations. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of T. viride strain confirmed the highest abundance of compositions comprising octan-3-one (13.92%), 3-octanol (10.57%), and 1-octen-3-ol (9.40%) in the most potential T. viride 7764. Further Physico-chemical characterization by standard Collaborative International Pesticides Analytical Council (CIPAC) methods revealed the optimized TvP formulation to be free flowing at pH 6.50, with a density of 0.732 g cm -3 . The TvT formulation showed a pH value of 7.16 and density of 0.0017 g cm -3 for a complete disintegration time of 22.5 min. The biocontrol potential of TvP formulation was found to be superior to that of TvT formulation in terms of both seed germination and wilt incidence in chickpea under field conditions. However, both the developed formulations (TvP and TvT) expressed greater bioefficacy compared to the synthetic fungicide (Carbendazim 50% WP) and the conventional talc-based formulation. Further research should be carried out on the compatibility of the developed products with other agrochemicals of synthetic or natural origin to develop an integrated disease management (IDM) schedule in chickpea.

Fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), a threat to maize production systems, is a polyphagous pest of global significance. There is no registered bioinsecticide of botanical origin to provide green remedy against this pest of concern. The present study reports for the first time the potency of the polar and non-polar bioinsecticidal leads sourced from Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. leaves. Shade-dried leaves of L . alba were extracted and evaluated; based on preliminary bioassay, the ethyl acetate leaf extract of L . alba ( LEAE ) was found to be the most potent against FAW in the in vitro and in vivo studies. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight–mass spectrometric (UPLC-QToF-MS) analysis of LEAE revealed the rich chemical profile of 28 compounds, dominated by flavones, namely, naringenin, trihydroxy-dimethoxy flavone, and dihydroxy-trimethoxy flavone. Among others, glycosides, such as clerodendrin, calceolarioside E, forsythoside B, geniposide, and martynoside, and glucuronides, such as luteolin-7-diglucuronide, tricin-7-O-glucuronide, and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, were also identified. LEAE exhibited exceptionally high in vitro [LC 50 = 6,900 parts per million (ppm)] and in vivo (computed as damage score on a scale of 1–9) insecticidal activity against S . frugiperda , with no phytotoxicity at a dose as high as 20 times of LC 50 . LEAE also exhibited significant antifeedant, ovicidal, and growth regulatory activity at the 70–16,000 ppm (w/v) concentration range. In silico assessment revealed strong binding of martynoside, calceolarioside E, and forsythoside B with acetylcholinesterase-, sodium-, and chloride-dependent γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor and ryanodine receptor, respectively, facilitated by hydrogen bonds (conventional and C–H bonds) stabilized by hydrophobic pi–sigma, pi–pi stacked, pi–alkyl, and alkyl interactions. The present study established L. alba as a potential bioresource and secondary metabolite enriched LEAE as bioinsecticide for further product development.