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We present aeronomical observations collected using remote sensing instruments on board Venus Express, complemented with ground-based observations and numerical modeling. They are mostly based on VIRTIS and SPICAV measurements of airglow obtained in the nadir mode and at the limb above 90 km. They complement our understanding of the behavior of Venus’ upper atmosphere that was largely based on Pioneer Venus observations mostly performed over thirty years earlier. Following a summary of recent spectral data from the EUV to the infrared, we examine how these observations have improved our knowledge of the composition, thermal structure, dynamics and transport of the Venus upper atmosphere. We then synthesize progress in three-dimensional modeling of the upper atmosphere which is largely based on global mapping and observations of time variations of the nitric oxide and O 2 nightglow emissions. Processes controlling the escape flux of atoms to space are described. Results based on the VeRA radio propagation experiment are summarized and compared to ionospheric measurements collected during earlier space missions. Finally, we point out some unsolved and open questions generated by these recent datasets and model comparisons.

Here we present water vapor vertical profiles observed with the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter/Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery instrument during the perihelion and Southern summer solstice season (LS = 240°–300°) in three consecutive Martian Years 34, 35, and 36. We show the detailed latitudinal distribution of H2O at tangent altitudes from 10 to 120 km, revealing a vertical plume at 60°S–50°S injecting H2O upward, reaching abundance of about 50 ppmv at 100 km. We have observed this event repeatedly in the three Martian years analyzed, appearing at LS = 260°–280° and showing inter‐annual variations in the magnitude and timing due to long term effects of the Martian Year 34 Global Dust Storm. We provide a rough estimate of projected hydrogen escape of 3.2 × 109 cm−2 s−1 associated to these plumes, adding further evidence of the key role played by the perihelion season in the long term evolution of the planet's climate. Plain Language Summary Studying the vertical distribution of the Martian atmosphere is crucial to understand what happened to the water presumably present in larger abundance on ancient Mars. We have analyzed the vertical profiles of three Martian Years during the Southern summer, revealing a strong vertical transport of water vapor to the upper atmosphere. This seasonal phenomenon seems to be repeated annually, although with variations in the location and time of the year. Our estimation of the associated upward hydrogen flux represents an important loss which could have contributed to the escape of water to space for at least the period in which Mars had its present orbital inclination. Key Points Latitudinal distributions of water vapor up to 120 km are analyzed in detail using Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery (NOMAD) observations with an improved retrieval scheme Water vapor injection during the perihelion localized around 50°–60°S in three consecutive Martian years Martian year 34 Global Dust Storm may have affected the driving mechanisms of the plume, delaying its appearance and reducing its magnitude

Temporomandibular disorders, of multifactorial etiology, refer to a series of pathologies that affect the temporomandibular joint and the associated musculature of the orofacial region and are the result of alterations in the physiological relationships of the stomatognathic system, responsible for functions such as chewing, phonation and swallowing. They produce, among other symptoms, mainly pain, which affects the quality of life of the patients who suffer from them. To alleviate the discomfort of neuromuscular pathology in the orofacial region, various therapeutic strategies are employed, ranging from non-invasive to more invasive methods. The aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of three therapeutic methods (dry needling, ischemic compression and cross-taping) in reducing or relieving masseter pain in individuals with orofacial myofascial pain. A multicenter randomized comparative clinical trial was conducted in 60 subjects over 18 years of age, divided into three groups: dry needling, ischemic compression and cross-taping. Pain intensity was assessed, randomly, by a single blinded evaluator, according to the Numerical Pain Rating Scale in the pre-treatment period, immediately after, 1-2 weeks and one month later. Immediately after applying the therapies, there was a greater decrease in pain intensity in dry needling, followed by ischemic compression and a smaller decrease in the cross-taping technique (  < 0.0001;  = 0.0001;  = 0.0014, respectively). After 1-2 weeks, there was a noticeable increase in the dry needling technique, however, there was a decrease in pain in the cross-taping technique. After 1 month of application, both dry needling and ischemic compression showed a slight reduction in pain intensity, in contrast to the cross-taping group, which showed an increase in pain intensity. Dry needling and ischemic compression were more effective than cross-taping for immediate reduction of orofacial myofascial pain. Further short- and long-term research is needed to confirm these findings. clinicaltrials.gov, identifier (NCT0660604).

Examination of amateur observations of Mars shows atmospheric plumes 200 to 250 kilometres high that are observed in the morning but not in the evening over a period of more than a week; our current understanding of Martian atmospheric dynamics and plume formation cannot account for the creation of such enormous plumes. Mars's mystery plume In March and April 2012, amateur astronomers observing Mars recorded what seemed like an eruption of some kind, a protrusion from the planet's disk that took about 10 hours to develop and lasted for more than a week. Agustin Sánchez-Lavega and colleagues have now analysed these observations in detail and describe the highest-reaching plume-like feature ever detected on Mars. It reached an altitude of 250 kilometres — previous high-altitude features reached no higher than 100 kilometres — and extended more than 500 kilometres in both the north–south and east–west directions. Suggested explanations for this mysterious plume include clouds of CO 2 or H 2 O ice or a phenomenon related to auroral emissions, but our current understanding of Martian atmospheric dynamics and plume formation cannot account for the creation of such enormous plumes. The Martian limb (that is, the observed ‘edge’ of the planet) represents a unique window into the complex atmospheric phenomena occurring there. Clouds of ice crystals (CO 2 ice or H 2 O ice) have been observed numerous times by spacecraft and ground-based telescopes, showing that clouds are typically layered and always confined below an altitude of 100 kilometres; suspended dust has also been detected at altitudes up to 60 kilometres during major dust storms 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . Highly concentrated and localized patches of auroral emission controlled by magnetic field anomalies in the crust have been observed at an altitude of 130 kilometres 7 . Here we report the occurrence in March and April 2012 of two bright, extremely high-altitude plumes at the Martian terminator (the day–night boundary) at 200 to 250 kilometres or more above the surface, and thus well into the ionosphere and the exosphere 8 , 9 . They were spotted at a longitude of about 195° west, a latitude of about −45° (at Terra Cimmeria), extended about 500 to 1,000 kilometres in both the north–south and east–west directions, and lasted for about 10 days. The features exhibited day-to-day variability, and were seen at the morning terminator but not at the evening limb, which indicates rapid evolution in less than 10 hours and a cyclic behaviour. We used photometric measurements to explore two possible scenarios and investigate their nature. For particles reflecting solar radiation, clouds of CO 2 -ice or H 2 O-ice particles with an effective radius of 0.1 micrometres are favoured over dust. Alternatively, the plume could arise from auroral emission, of a brightness more than 1,000 times that of the Earth’s aurora, over a region with a strong magnetic anomaly where aurorae have previously been detected 7 . Importantly, both explanations defy our current understanding of Mars’ upper atmosphere.

We report and analyze here observations of strong infrared emissions from the limb of the Venus upper atmosphere during daytime, taken by the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) aboard Venus Express. We focus on the measurements taken during the first 4 months of nominal operations. The emissions observed at 4.3 μm and at 2.7 μm are attributed to CO2 fluorescence of solar radiation and are detected up to about 160 km and 130 km, respectively, while the CO fluorescence at 4.7 μm is observed up to about 120 km. The emissions are detected in both the channels of VIRTIS, at different spatial and spectral resolutions (resolving powers about 1800 and 400), for the periapsis and the apoapsis of the Venus Express orbit. From these data sets we built up 2‐D maps of the emissions as well as vertical profiles, which are then studied in order to characterize their variations with geophysical parameters, like solar illumination and emission altitude. Several analyses are performed in order to understand the VIRTIS behavior, to determine systematic effects in the data, and to propose appropriate corrections. We also present comparisons with a theoretical nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium (non‐LTE) model of the Venus upper atmosphere. The agreement is very encouraging, in general, and the main variability observed in the data, with solar zenith angle and altitude, can be understood with the model. We conclude that the present data set opens brilliant perspectives for deriving densities and rotational temperatures in the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere of Venus.

Key Points Describes the discovery and use of cocaine as an anaesthetic and the dangers of self-experimentation. Dr Halsted and his aide Dr Hall discovered the technique for blocking the inferior alveolar nerve and the antero-superior dental nerve using cocaine as an anaesthetic. Since its introduction, the anaesthetic technique described has been revolutionary in the practice of odontology. William Stewart Halsted is considered to be one of the most influential and innovative surgeons the USA has ever produced. His contributions to surgery are abundant, ranging from sophisticated surgical techniques in the field of breast surgery, surgery of the digestive apparatus and traumatological interventions, to the introduction of gloves in the operating theatre. Here we present Dr Halsted, together with his aide Dr Hall, as the discoverers of the technique for blocking the inferior alveolar nerve and the antero-superior dental nerve using cocaine as an anaesthetic. The anaesthetic technique, described perfectly by both surgeons in 1885, has been revolutionary in the practice of odontology since its introduction, offering dentists the possibility of performing invasive interventions to the maxillary without pain.

The Martian mesosphere and thermosphere, the region above about 60 km, is not the primary target of the ExoMars 2016 mission but its Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) can explore it and address many interesting issues, either in-situ during the aerobraking period or remotely during the regular mission. In the aerobraking phase TGO peeks into thermospheric densities and temperatures, in a broad range of latitudes and during a long continuous period. TGO carries two instruments designed for the detection of trace species, NOMAD and ACS, which will use the solar occultation technique. Their regular sounding at the terminator up to very high altitudes in many different molecular bands will represent the first time that an extensive and precise dataset of densities and hopefully temperatures are obtained at those altitudes and local times on Mars. But there are additional capabilities in TGO for studying the upper atmosphere of Mars, and we review them briefly. Our simulations suggest that airglow emissions from the UV to the IR might be observed outside the terminator. If eventually confirmed from orbit, they would supply new information about atmospheric dynamics and variability. However, their optimal exploitation requires a special spacecraft pointing, currently not considered in the regular operations but feasible in our opinion. We discuss the synergy between the TGO instruments, specially the wide spectral range achieved by combining them. We also encourage coordinated operations with other Mars-observing missions capable of supplying simultaneous measurements of its upper atmosphere.

Key Points Discusses local anaesthesia, using cocaine, as introduced in Europe by the Vienna group, Freud, Koller and Königstein. Highlights Freud, Koler and Koningstein tested the drug on their own oral mucosa. Draws attention to disputes over a revolutionary discovery at this time. Local anaesthesia through the action of cocaine was introduced in Europe by the Vienna group, which includeed Freud, Koller and Königstein. Before using the alkaloid in animal or human experimentation all these scientists tested it on their oral mucosa – so-called self-experimentation. Some of them with different pathologies (that is, in the case of Freud), eventually became addicted to the alkaloid. Here we attempt to describe the people forming the so-called 'Vienna group', their social milieu, their experiences and internal disputes within the setting of a revolutionary discovery of the times.

On Mars, atomic oxygen controls the carbon dioxide radiative cooling of the upper atmosphere and the presence of an ozone layer near the poles. To remotely probe meridional transport of O atoms from the summer to the winter hemisphere and the descending flow in the winter polar regions, the O 2 Herzberg II atmospheric emission could be used as a proxy. This emission is quite weak on Earth’s nightside, but it is prominent in the Venus night airglow, and it has not previously been observed on Mars. Here we report the limb detection of the O 2 Herzberg II visible bands in the Mars nightglow with the NOMAD ultraviolet–visible spectrometer onboard the European Space Agency’s Trace Gas Orbiter. The emission layer reaches up to hundreds of kilorayleighs in the limb viewing geometry. It is mainly located between 40 km and 60 km at high latitudes during the winter season, consistent with three-body recombination of oxygen atoms. This O 2 nightglow should be observable from a Martian orbiter as well as from the Martian surface with the naked eye under clear sky conditions. These observations pave the way to future global observations of the Martian atmospheric circulation with simpler lower-cost instrumentation. ESA’s Trace Gas Orbiter reveals that the winter night sky on Mars emits visible light between 50 km and 70 km altitude in the polar regions. This nightglow should be observable with simple space camera systems and the naked eyes of future Mars astronauts.