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Cleruchoides noackae (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), native to Australia, is the most promising biological control agent for Thaumastocoris peregrinus (Hemiptera: Thaumastocoridae), an exotic Eucalyptus spp. pest in Brazil. The aim of this study was to determine the courtship behaviour, mating and oviposition of unmated or mated C. noackae females parasitizing T. peregrinus eggs utilizing the same rearing system used in biological control programmes in Brazil. The mating behaviour of eleven C. noackae unmated couples was observed and the time taken for males and females to find each other in polystyrene vials and the duration and number of copulations were recorded. Ten unmated or mated females were placed individually in vials with 10 T. peregrinus eggs each, and oviposition behaviour, percentage of eggs inserted and parasitized, viability and sex ratio of emerged C. noackae were recorded. This species lacked defined courtship behaviour and mated in less than an hour after adults' emergence. The time spent finding the first host, evaluating and inserting the ovipositor was similar for mated and unmated C. noackae females, as well as the frequency of inserted and parasitized eggs and their viability. Mated females took less time to find other host eggs and the sex ratio is female-biased. Occurrence of arrhenotokous parthenogenesis was confirmed. The ability of C. noackae to mate and lay eggs in less than one hour and parasitism of T. peregrinus eggs by females can improve the parasitoid mass rearing and biological control of T. peregrinus.

Background Anaphes nitens (Girault, 1928) (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) is an egg parasitoid used for the biological control of Gonipterus spp. in regions where this pest is present. Cold storage of host eggs is a crucial strategy in biological control programs. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of cold storage on G. platensis eggs for laboratory rearing of both the host and its parasitoid, A. nitens. Methods Gonipterus platensis eggs, aged 1 and 3 days, were stored in a refrigerator at 7 ± 1 °C for 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 days in complete darkness. After each storage period, the eggs were transferred to a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) chamber at 25 °C and hatching rates and larval survival were assessed. To evaluate parasitoid reproduction, fresh host eggs were stored at 7 ± 1 °C for 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 days under dark conditions and subsequently exposed to A. nitens. Parasitism rate, sex ratio, and offspring longevity were recorded. Results Results showed that 1- and 3-day-old G. platensis eggs maintained the highest viability within the first 10 days of storage, with hatching rates exceeding 50% up to 20 days post-storage. A 20-day storage period was the longest duration that did not differ significantly from the non-stored eggs (control) considering A. nitens parasitism and progeny longevity when stored host eggs were offered. Conclusion Therefore, storing host eggs for this period effectively supports colony maintenance while simultaneously facilitating parasitoid propagation.

The bronze bug, Thaumastocoris peregrinus , an Australian native insect, has become a nearly worldwide invasive pest in the last 16 years and has been causing significant damage to eucalypts (Myrtaceae), including Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. Its rapid expansion leads to new questions about pathways and routes that T. peregrinus used to invade other continents and countries. We used mtDNA to characterize specimens of T. peregrinus collected from 10 countries where this species has become established, including six recently invaded countries: Chile, Israel, Mexico, Paraguay, Portugal, and the United States of America. We then combined our mtDNA data with previous data available from South Africa, Australia, and Europe to construct a world mtDNA network of haplotypes. Haplotype A was the most common present in all specimens of sites sampled in the New World, Europe, and Israel, however from Australia second more frequently. Haplotype D was the most common one from native populations in Australia. Haplotype A differs from the two major haplotypes found in South Africa (D and G), confirming that at least two independent invasions occurred, one from Australia to South Africa, and the other one from Australia to South America (A). In conclusion, Haplotype A has an invasion success over many countries in the World. Additionally, analyzing data from our work and previous reports, it is possible to suggest some invasive routes of T. peregrinus to predict such events and support preventive control measures.

Cleruchoides noackae Lin & Huber (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) was imported to Brazil in 2012, to manage the exotic pest Thaumastocoris peregrinus Carpintero & Dellapé (Hemiptera: Thaumastocoridae), which has been damaging eucalyptus plantations. Knowledge of the thermal requirements and the fertility life table of C. noackae is important to improve mass rearing methods for this parasitoid and the effectiveness of its release to manage T. peregrinus . The objective was to evaluate the development period, thermal requirements and the fertility life table of C. noackae at different temperatures. The egg-adult period of this parasitoid varied from 43 to 14 days at 15 °C and 30 °C, respectively. The emergence of C. noackae adults was higher at 15 °C, 18 °C, 21 °C and 24 °C than at 30 °C. Female and male C. noackae need 226.75 and 230.41 degree-days and temperatures higher than 10.06 °C and 9.90 °C, respectively, to complete egg-adult development. The number of parasitized eggs per C. noackae female was higher at 21 °C, 24 °C and 27 °C, with 5.82, 7.73 and 5.50 eggs, respectively, than at 30 °C (0.45). Cleruchoides noackae longevity was greater at 15 °C, 21 °C and 24 °C. The net reproductive rate of the parasitoid was higher at 21 °C and 24 °C than at 30 °C, 3.05, 4.70 and 0.16, respectively. The finite rate of increase of C. noackae was greater at 21 °C, 24 °C and 27 °C, than at 30 °C and the intrinsic rate of increase was negative at 30 °C, −0.100. The temperatures 21 °C and 24 °C and from 18 °C to 27 °C are the most adequate for the reproduction and population increase of C. noackae parasitizing eggs of T. peregrinus , respectively.

Heraclides anchisiades capys (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), Citioica anthonilis (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), and Methona themisto (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) are tree and shrub pests commonly found in urban areas. The parasitism capacity of Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) was evaluated on pupae of these lepidopteran pests as well as on 2 commonly used alternative hosts, Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The number of parasitoids produced per mg of host pupal biomass was significantly greater on H. anchisiades capys and T. molitor compared with the other 3 lepidopteran species. The mean number of parasitoids emerging per host pupa was also significantly more on H. anchisiades capys compared with C. anthonilis, M. themisto, A. gemmatalis, or T. molitor. All host species tested in this study show the potential to be used in mass rearing P. elaeisis in the laboratory. However, the lower parasitism and emergence of P. elaeisis on H. anchisiades capys pupae suggests that this lepidopteran pest may not be a suitable host for this parasitoid in the field.

The bronze bug Thaumastocoris peregrinus Carpintero & Dellapé (Hemiptera: Thaumastocoridae) was detected infesting Eucalyptus trees in Brazil in 2008, in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul and Minas Gerais and in 2009 was found in the state of Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. Details about geographical spread, means of introduction, impact in Eucalyptus plantations and natural enemies observed in the field are discussed.