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Since the 1960s, East African athletes, mainly from Kenya and Ethiopia, have dominated long-distance running events in both the male and female categories. Further demographic studies have shown that two ethnic groups are overrepresented among elite endurance runners in each of these countries: the Kalenjin, from Kenya, and the Oromo, from Ethiopia, raising the possibility that this dominance results from genetic or/and cultural factors. However, looking at the life history of these athletes or at loci previously associated with endurance athletic performance, no compelling explanation has emerged. Here, we used a population approach to identify peaks of genetic differentiation for these two ethnicities and compared the list of genes close to these regions with a list, manually curated by us, of genes that have been associated with traits possibly relevant to endurance running in GWAS studies, and found a significant enrichment in both populations (Kalenjin, P = 0.048, and Oromo, P = 1.6x10 -5 ). Those traits are mainly related to anthropometry, circulatory and respiratory systems, energy metabolism, and calcium homeostasis. Our results reinforce the notion that endurance running is a systemic activity with a complex genetic architecture, and indicate new candidate genes for future studies. Finally, we argue that a deterministic relationship between genetics and sports must be avoided, as it is both scientifically incorrect and prone to reinforcing population (racial) stereotyping.

Correspondence to Professor Yannis P Pitsiladis, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4AT, UK; Y.Pitsiladis@Brighton.ac.uk Background The environmental conditions during Tokyo Summer Olympics are expected to be comparable to previous years1 with air temperatures and relative humidity in excess of 30°C and >70%, respectively.2 A previous consensus statement highlighted the main considerations for prevention, recognition and treatment of exertional heat illnesses,3 while the impact of extreme heat on athletic performance is examined elsewhere.4 Cooling strategies applied before and during the exercise in the heat have been shown to help athletes better maintain their performances5 by lowering body heat storage and core body temperature.6 The Tokyo Games have also encouraged the development of wearable technologies that could also be used for prevention, diagnosis and real-time monitoring of skin and core temperature and will be trialled during competition in Tokyo 2020. [...]the cooling effectiveness of this new technology during sporting events in hot and humid conditions remains to be determined.Table 1 Recently developed wearable technology designed to cool an individual in a hot environment Technology Information Pocket Air Conditioners Wireless devices that, when in contact with one’s skin through a shirt, can potentially cool the local microenvironment on the body surface. More accurate diagnosis of conditions such as EHS, and therefore, protection against too drastic measures, will also be achieved by the simultaneous monitoring of physiological, biomechanical and perceptual data.9 Of paramount importance are also the requirements (1) to ensure implementation of any technology that uses biophysical data of athletes is in strict accordance with data protection rules and (2) to develop encryption technology to avoid any anauthorised access of the athletes personal/biometric data.

The role of animal movement in spreading infectious diseases is highly recognized by various legislations and institutions such as the World Organisation for Animal Health and the International Animal Health Code. The increased interactions at the nexus of human-animal-ecosystem interface have seen an unprecedented introduction and reintroduction of new zoonotic diseases with high socio-economic impacts such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and animals and is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes or through contact with the body fluids of infected animals. This study seeks to characterize movement patterns of pastoralist and how this movement behaviour increases their susceptibility to RVF virus exposure. We levarage on a rapidly growing field of movement ecology to monitor five herds collared from 2013 – 2015 in an RVF endemic semi-arid region in Kenya. The herds were also sampled for RVF antibodies to assess their exposure to RVF virus during the rainy seasons. adehabitatLT package in R was used to analyze the trajectory data whereas the first passage time (FPT) analysis was used to measure the area utilized in grazing. Sedentary herds grazed within 15km radius while migrating herds presented restricted space use patterns during the dry seasons and transient movement during the start and end of the rainy season. Furthermore, RVF virus antibodies were generally low for sedentary herds whereas the migrating herds recorded high levels during their transition periods. This study can be used to identify RVF risk zones for timely and targeted management strategies.

Orthobunyaviruses, tri-segmented, negative-sense RNA viruses, have long been associated with mild to severe human disease in Africa, but not haemorrhagic fever. However, during a Rift Valley fever outbreak in East Africa in 1997–1998, Ngari virus was isolated from two patients and antibody detected in several others with haemorrhagic fever. The isolates were used to identify Ngari virus as a natural Orthobunyavirus reassortant. Despite their potential to reassort and cause severe human disease, characterization of orthobunyaviruses is hampered by paucity of genetic sequences. Our objective was to obtain complete gene sequences of two Bunyamwera virus and three Ngari virus isolates from recent surveys in Kenya and to determine their phylogenetic positioning within the Bunyamwera serogroup. Newly sequenced Kenyan Bunyamwera virus isolates clustered closest to a Bunyamwera virus isolate from the same locality and a Central African Republic isolate indicating that similar strains may be circulating regionally. Recent Kenyan Ngari isolates were closest to the Ngari isolates associated with the 1997–1998 haemorrhagic fever outbreak. We observed a temporal/geographical relationship among Ngari isolates in all three gene segments suggesting a geographical/temporal association with genetic diversity. These sequences in addition to earlier sequences can be used for future analyses of this neglected but potentially deadly group of viruses.

Background Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis of ruminants and humans that causes outbreaks in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula with significant public health and economic consequences. Humans become infected through mosquito bites and contact with infected livestock. The virus is maintained between outbreaks through vertically infected eggs of the primary vectors of Aedes species which emerge following rains with extensive flooding. Infected female mosquitoes initiate transmission among nearby animals, which amplifies virus, thereby infecting more mosquitoes and moving the virus beyond the initial point of emergence. With each successive outbreak, RVF has been found to expand its geographic distribution to new areas, possibly driven by available vectors. The aim of the present study was to determine if RVF virus (RVFV) transmission risk in two different ecological zones in Kenya could be assessed by looking at the species composition, abundance and distribution of key primary and secondary vector species and the level of virus activity. Methodology Mosquitoes were trapped during short and long rainy seasons in 2014 and 2015 using CO2 baited CDC light traps in two counties which differ in RVF epidemic risk levels(high risk Tana-River and low risk Isiolo),cryo-preserved in liquid nitrogen, transported to the laboratory, and identified to species. Mosquito pools were analyzed for virus infection using cell culture screening and molecular analysis. Findings Over 69,000 mosquitoes were sampled and identified as 40 different species belonging to 6 genera (Aedes, Anopheles, Mansonia, Culex, Aedeomyia, Coquillettidia). The presence and abundance of Aedes mcintoshi and Aedes ochraceus, the primary mosquito vectors associated with RVFV transmission in outbreaks, varied significantly between Tana-River and Isiolo. Ae. mcintoshi was abundant in Tana-River and Isiolo but notably, Aedes ochraceus found in relatively high numbers in Tana-River (n = 1,290), was totally absent in all Isiolo sites. Fourteen virus isolates including Sindbis, Bunyamwera, and West Nile fever viruses were isolated mostly from Ae. mcintoshi sampled in Tana-River. RVFV was not detected in any of the mosquitoes. Conclusion This study presents the geographic distribution and abundance of arbovirus vectors in two Kenyan counties, which may assist with risk assessment for mosquito borne diseases.

Nairobi National Park (NNP) is among Kenya’s most vulnerable ecosystems, experiencing significant pressure from urbanization. Rodents, which are sensitive to environmental changes, are considered bioindicators of ecosystem health, and their population dynamics can be used to assess ecosystem pressures such as urbanization. This study assessed the rodent community structure in NNP to understand the effects of various urban pressures by examining the relationships between rodent diversity, richness, and abundance with vegetation types and metrics, seasonality, and habitat disturbances. The capture-mark-release method was used to trap rodents from 15 sites in Nairobi National Park’s savannah, forest, and riverine vegetation types during the dry and wet seasons. The diversity, species richness and abundance were determined from the trappings. From 56 rodents trapped, five species were identified namely: Lemniscomys striatus, Hylomyscus sp, Rattus rattus, Mus mus and Otomys tropicalis. Rodent diversity at NNP was low (Simpson=0.7130; Shannon Weiner=1.40; Brillouin index=1.27) while Pielou’s species evenness, was moderate=0.44 indicating near equity in species distribution. Univariate Generalised linear models showed that rodent abundance was influenced by season, vegetation type, and vegetation metrics. The multivariate model indicated that rodents were more abundant in the wet season compared to the dry season, and that abundance was also positively associated with increased tree and shrub densities. Rodent species richness was positively associated with higher tree density, while vegetation types influenced rodent species diversity. Rodent abundance was influenced by vegetation type, vegetation metrics (density and cover), and season. Human disturbance had no effect in both models. It was observed that the diverse anthropogenic activities occurring in NNP, do not significantly influence rodent abundance compared to the measured biotic and abiotic factors. This first rodent survey in this Park provides preliminary data for continued monitoring of this ecosystem.

The essential oils from 15 species of African plants selected by ethnobotanical considerations and field inspection (odour and presence of insects) were screened for fumigant toxicity to Anopheles gambiae s.s. in the laboratory. Essential oils from 6 species showed varying levels of toxicity, with Conyza newii (Compositae) and Plectranthus marruboides (Labiateae) being the most potent. Fifty compounds representing ∼74% of the essential oil of C. newii were identified by GC-MS and GC-coinjection (for available standards). The major and some of the minor constituents of the two oils were assayed at different doses. Two compounds, from C. newii, perillaldehyde and perillyl alcohol, exhibited higher fumigant toxicity (LD 50=1.05×10 −4 and 2.52×10 −4 mg cm −3, respectively) than the parent oil (2.0×10 −3 mg cm −3). GC-MS analysis of the essential oil of P. marruboides gave results similar to that previously reported. Interestingly, none of its components were active, suggesting that the insecticidal activity of the oil results from either some of the minor components or as a blend effect of some of the major constituents.

Many HIV?positive individuals in Africa have advanced disease when initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) so have high risks of opportunistic infections and death. The REALITY trial found that an enhanced?prophylaxis package including fluconazole reduced mortality by 27% in individuals starting ART with CD4 <100 cells/mm[sup.3] . We investigated the cost?effectiveness of this enhanced?prophylaxis package versus other strategies, including using cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) testing, in individuals with CD4 <200 cells/mm[sup.3] or <100 cells/mm[sup.3] at ART initiation and all individuals regardless of CD4 count. The REALITY trial enrolled from June 2013 to April 2015. A decision?analytic model was developed to estimate the cost?effectiveness of six management strategies in individuals initiating ART in the REALITY trial countries. Strategies included standard?prophylaxis, enhanced?prophylaxis, standard?prophylaxis with fluconazole; and three CrAg testing strategies, the first stratifying individuals to enhanced?prophylaxis (CrAg?positive) or standard?prophylaxis (CrAg?negative), the second to enhanced?prophylaxis (CrAg?positive) or enhanced?prophylaxis without fluconazole (CrAg?negative) and the third to standard?prophylaxis with fluconazole (CrAg?positive) or without fluconazole (CrAg?negative). The model estimated costs, life?years and quality?adjusted life?years (QALY) over 48 weeks using three competing mortality risks: cryptococcal meningitis; tuberculosis, serious bacterial infection or other known cause; and unknown cause. The REALITY enhanced?prophylaxis package in individuals with advanced HIV starting ART reduces morbidity and mortality, is practical to administer and is cost?effective. Efforts should continue to ensure that components are accessed at lowest available prices.