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Computer-based scaffolding (CBS) has been regarded as an effective way to help individual students complete and gain skill at completing complex tasks beyond their current ability level. Previous meta-analyses also have demonstrated that CBS for collaborative learning leads to positive cognitive outcomes in problem-centered instruction for STEM education. However, while separate synthesis efforts have been conducted on CBS and collaboration guidance, little work has examined the intersection of these approaches. This study addresses this gap by examining the extent to which the effect of CBS is moderated by the group size in which students work, which type of CBS intervention was used in groups or individually, and whether CBS includes supports for both individual and group works or only individual learning. Results from 145 studies indicate that CBS leads to statistically significant cognitive learning effects when students solve problems individually, as well as working in pairs, triads, and small groups. Moderator analyses indicated that (a) effect sizes are higher when students worked in pairs than when they worked in triads, small groups, or individually; (b) the effect size of metacognitive scaffolding on group activity is higher than other types of scaffolding intervention; and (c) the effect size is higher for groups when scaffolding was present but collaboration support was absent. These results suggest that elaborated design and integration of CBS and collaboration guidance are considered to maximize students’ learning in problem-centered instruction within STEM education.

Computer-based scaffolding assists students as they generate solutions to complex problems, goals, or tasks, helping increase and integrate their higher order skills in the process. However, despite decades of research on scaffolding in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education, no existing comprehensive meta-analysis has synthesized the results of these studies. This review addresses that need by synthesizing the results of 144 experimental studies (333 outcomes) on the effects of computer-based scaffolding designed to assist the full range of STEM learners (primary through adult education) as they navigated ill-structured, problem-centered curricula. Results of our random effect meta-analysis (a) indicate that computer-based scaffolding showed a consistently positive (ḡ = 0.46) effect on cognitive outcomes across various contexts of use, scaffolding characteristics, and levels of assessment and (b) shed light on many scaffolding debates, including the roles of customization (i.e., fading and adding) and context-specific support. Specifically, scaffolding's influence on cognitive outcomes did not vary on the basis of context-specificity, presence or absence of scaffolding change, and logic by which scaffolding change is implemented. Scaffolding's influence was greatest when measured at the principles level and among adult learners. Still scaffolding's effect was substantial and significantly greater than zero across all age groups and assessment levels. These results suggest that scaffolding is a highly effective intervention across levels of different characteristics and can largely be designed in many different ways while still being highly effective.

This multiple paper dissertation addressed several issues revolving around the estimation of effect sizes for computer-based scaffolding in problem-centered STEM education. STEM jobs are outpacing all other jobs and STEM workers are expected to solve complex problems. However, students often struggle with complex problem activities. Research on computer-based scaffolding has been shown to produce large learning gains in STEM fields. Yet, previous meta-analyses have not been able to pinpoint which scaffolding characteristics impact learning gains the most. This lack of insight impedes researchers and learning designers from developing more effective computer-based scaffolds. This dissertation (a) provides insights on the gaps in computer-based scaffolding syntheses, (b) reveals the conflation of terminology that has been used to characterize scaffolding, (c) details a taxonomy for the various forms of computer-based scaffolding, and (d) conducts a meta-analysis to estimate which scaffolding forms and combinations of computer-based scaffolding forms produce the largest learning gains in collegiate engineering education.

The chapter focuses on the importance of self‐directed learning in problem‐based learning (PBL) through a review and analysis of relevant literature. Although self‐directed learning is a critical process and outcome of PBL, there is a lack of emphasis on the study of self‐directed learning (SDL) in the PBL environment. To gain more understanding of SDL and its relevance to PBL, we undertake a review of PBL history as it applies to SDL, as well as the cognitive, affective, and conative learning objectives, and goals of PBL. Underlying learning theories that support PBL are explained. As indicated in several existing primary research studies there is strong connection between SDL and PBL. Data supports the claims that PBL promotes self‐directed learning as a process within PBL and an outcome of PBL interventions. The chapter ends with a conclusion and recommendations for future researchers.

Problem-based learning (PBL) in its most current form originated in medical education but has since been used in a variety of disciplines (Savery & Duffy, 1995) at a variety of educational levels (Savery, 2006). Although recent meta analyses have been conducted (Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Gijbels, Dochy, Van den Bossche, & Segers, 2005) that attempted to go beyond medical education, they found only one study in economics and were unable to explain large portions of the variance across results. This work builds upon their efforts as a meta-analysis that crosses disciplines as well as categorizes the types of problems