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The past decade has seen an increasing interest in forest management based on historical or natural disturbance dynamics. The rationale is that management that favours landscape compositions and stand structures similar to those found historically should also maintain biodiversity and essential ecological functions. In fire-dominated landscapes, this approach is feasible only if current and future fire frequencies are sufficiently low compared with the preindustrial fire frequency, so a substitution of fire by forest management can occur without elevating the overall frequency of disturbance. We address this question by comparing current and simulated future fire frequency based on 2 x CO2 and 3 x CO2 scenarios to historical reconstructions of fire frequency in the commercial forests of Quebec. For most regions, current and simulated future fire frequencies are lower than the historical fire frequency, suggesting that forest management could potentially be used to maintain or recreate the age-class distribution of fire-dominated preindustrial landscapes. Current even-aged management, however, tends to reduce forest variability by, for example, truncating the natural age-class distribution and eliminating mature and old-growth forests from the landscape. Therefore, in the context of sustainable forest management, silvicultural techniques that retain a spectrum of forest compositions and structures at different scales are necessary to maintain this variability and thereby allow a substitution of fire by harvesting.

1. Although anthropogenic edges are an important consequence of timber harvesting, edges due to natural disturbances or landscape heterogeneity are also common. Forest edges have been well studied in temperate and tropical forests, but less so in less productive, disturbance-adapted boreal forests. 2. We synthesized data on forest vegetation at edges of boreal forests and compared edge influence among edge types (fire, cut, lake/wetland; old vs. young), forest types (broadleaf vs. coniferous) and geographic regions. Our objectives were to quantify vegetation responses at edges of all types and to compare the strength and extent of edge influence among different types of edges and forests. 3. Research was conducted using the same general sampling design in Alberta, Ontario and Quebec in Canada, and in Sweden and Finland. We conducted a meta-analysis for a variety of response variables including forest structure, deadwood abundance, regeneration, understorey abundance and diversity, and non-vascular plant cover. We also determined the magnitude and distance of edge influence (DEI) using randomization tests. 4. Some edge responses (lower tree basal area, tree canopy and bryophyte cover; more logs; higher regeneration) were significant overall across studies. Edge influence on ground vegetation in boreal forests was generally weak, not very extensive (DEI usually < 20 m) and decreased with time. We found more extensive edge influence at natural edges, at younger edges and in broadleaf forests. The comparison among regions revealed weaker edge influence in Fennoscandian forests. 5. Synthesis. Edges created by forest harvesting do not appear to have as strong, extensive or persistent influence on vegetation in boreal as in tropical or temperate forested ecosystems. We attribute this apparent resistance to shorter canopy heights, inherent heterogeneity in boreal forests and their adaptation to frequent natural disturbance. Nevertheless, notable differences between forest structure responses to natural (fire) and anthropogenic (cut) edges raise concerns about biodiversity implications of extensive creation of anthropogenic edges. By highlighting universal responses to edge influence in boreal forests that are significant irrespective of edge or forest type, and those which vary by edge type, we provide a context for the conservation of boreal forests.

Questions: What is the distance of edge influence on the structure and understorey composition at 16-17-yr-old cut edges in black spruce boreal forest? How do these edges compare with more recent 2-5-yr-old cut edges in the same region? Location: Northwestern Quebec, Canada. Methods: Forest structure and understorey composition were sampled along transects perpendicular to ten 16-17-yr-old clear-cut edges, and compared to published results from 2-5-yr-old cut edges. We used randomization tests to assess the magnitude and distance of edge influence, and to compare edge influence between different edge ages. Results: Black spruce forest next to the 16-17-yr-old cut edges was structurally and compositionally very similar to interior forest, with little edge influence from harvesting beyond 5 m into the forest. Edge influence on the understorey was weak (low magnitude) and not very extensive (short distance) at these edges, with no significant edge influence on the abundance of individual species. Logs peaked in abundance on the forest side of the edge, with values higher than in either adjacent ecosystem. Conclusions: Overall, 16-17-yr-old cut edges in black spruce forest showed little evidence of further structural change compared to the 2-5-yr-old cut edges. Structural development of these edges as well as regeneration of the disturbed areas also resulted in reduced edge influence on the understorey. Instead, clearcut edges in black spruce forest may experience more forest influence on the regenerating disturbed area.

QUESTIONS: What is the distance of edge influence on the structure and understorey composition at 16–17‐yr‐old cut edges in black spruce boreal forest? How do these edges compare with more recent 2–5‐yr‐old cut edges in the same region? LOCATION: Northwestern Quebec, Canada. METHODS: Forest structure and understorey composition were sampled along transects perpendicular to ten 16–17‐yr‐old clear‐cut edges, and compared to published results from 2–5‐yr‐old cut edges. We used randomization tests to assess the magnitude and distance of edge influence, and to compare edge influence between different edge ages. RESULTS: Black spruce forest next to the 16–17‐yr‐old cut edges was structurally and compositionally very similar to interior forest, with little edge influence from harvesting beyond 5 m into the forest. Edge influence on the understorey was weak (low magnitude) and not very extensive (short distance) at these edges, with no significant edge influence on the abundance of individual species. Logs peaked in abundance on the forest side of the edge, with values higher than in either adjacent ecosystem. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, 16–17‐yr‐old cut edges in black spruce forest showed little evidence of further structural change compared to the 2–5‐yr‐old cut edges. Structural development of these edges as well as regeneration of the disturbed areas also resulted in reduced edge influence on the understorey. Instead, clear‐cut edges in black spruce forest may experience more forest influence on the regenerating disturbed area.

Given that fire is the most important disturbance of the boreal forest, climatically induced changes in fire frequency (i.e., area burnt per year) can have important consequences on the resulting forest mosaic age-class distribution and composition. Using archives and dendroecological data we reconstructed the fire frequency in four large sectors along a transect from eastern Ontario to central Quebec. Results showed a dramatic decrease in fire frequency that began in the mid-19th century and has been accentuated during the 20th century. Although all areas showed a similar temporal decrease in area burned, we observed a gradual increase in fire frequency from the west to Abitibi east, followed by a slight decrease in central Quebec. The global warming that has been occurring since the end of the Little Ice Age (approximately 1850) may have created a climate less prone to large forest fires in the eastern boreal forest of North America. This interpretation is corroborated by predictions of a decrease in forest fires for that region of the boreal forest in the future. A longer fire cycle (i.e., the time needed to burn an area equivalent to the study area) has important consequences for sustainable forest management of the boreal forest of eastern Canada. When considering the important proportion of overmature and old-growth stands in the landscape resulting from the elongation of the fire cycles, it becomes difficult to justify clear-cutting practices over all the entire area as well as short rotations as a means to emulate natural disturbances. Alternative practices involving the uses of variable proportion of clear, partial, and selective cutting are discussed.

Fire history and forest dynamics were reconstructed for a 3800-km2 territory located in the south-central boreal forest of Quebec. Fire cycle was characterized using a random sampling strategy combined with archival data on fires that had occurred since 1923 on private land owned by Smurfit-Stone. Bioclimatic subdomain, land use, surficial deposit, and mean distance from a firebreak did not affect the fire cycle. Fire cycles have been longer since the end of the Little Ice Age (-1850). Warming after the Little Ice Age seems to have triggered a change in fire frequency. Forest dynamics were characterized by transition matrices for changes in dominant canopy composition from 344 permanent sampling plots. These permanent plots were sampled approximately every 15 years over the preceding 40 years. We observed two distinct patterns of replacement: (i) deciduous and mixed stands were replaced by balsam fir (Abies balsamifera (L.) Mill.) (and, to a lesser extent, by black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP)) and (ii) jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) was replaced by black spruce. Analyses confirm that species replacement occurs in the eastern boreal forest of Canada when the fire-return interval is long enough and that the substrate plays an important role along with other disturbances, such as insect outbreaks. Our results also suggest that the proportion of old-growth forests (>100 years old) in the landscape should increase as a result of the lengthening of the fire cycle. More and more stands are likely to experience species replacement. From the standpoint of sustainable forest management, this perspective calls into question the widespread use of clear-cutting in the boreal forest. Regional context must be taken into account in forest management if the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity are serious objectives. Economically and ecologically sound silvicultural scenarios that emulate natural processes are discussed.

Although anthropogenic edges are an important consequence of timber harvesting, edges due to natural disturbances or landscape heterogeneity are also common. Forest edges have been well studied in temperate and tropical forests, but less so in less productive, disturbance‐adapted boreal forests. We synthesized data on forest vegetation at edges of boreal forests and compared edge influence among edge types (fire, cut, lake/wetland; old vs. young), forest types (broadleaf vs. coniferous) and geographic regions. Our objectives were to quantify vegetation responses at edges of all types and to compare the strength and extent of edge influence among different types of edges and forests. Research was conducted using the same general sampling design in Alberta, Ontario and Quebec in Canada, and in Sweden and Finland. We conducted a meta‐analysis for a variety of response variables including forest structure, deadwood abundance, regeneration, understorey abundance and diversity, and non‐vascular plant cover. We also determined the magnitude and distance of edge influence (DEI) using randomization tests. Some edge responses (lower tree basal area, tree canopy and bryophyte cover; more logs; higher regeneration) were significant overall across studies. Edge influence on ground vegetation in boreal forests was generally weak, not very extensive (DEI usually < 20 m) and decreased with time. We found more extensive edge influence at natural edges, at younger edges and in broadleaf forests. The comparison among regions revealed weaker edge influence in Fennoscandian forests. Synthesis . Edges created by forest harvesting do not appear to have as strong, extensive or persistent influence on vegetation in boreal as in tropical or temperate forested ecosystems. We attribute this apparent resistance to shorter canopy heights, inherent heterogeneity in boreal forests and their adaptation to frequent natural disturbance. Nevertheless, notable differences between forest structure responses to natural (fire) and anthropogenic (cut) edges raise concerns about biodiversity implications of extensive creation of anthropogenic edges. By highlighting universal responses to edge influence in boreal forests that are significant irrespective of edge or forest type, and those which vary by edge type, we provide a context for the conservation of boreal forests.

We compared structure and composition at forest edges created by wildfire and clear-cutting in black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP) dominated boreal forest in northwestern Quebec. Forest structure and plant species composition were sampled along transects perpendicular to eight 3- to 4-year-old fire edges and eight 2- to 5-year-old cut edges. Significance of edge influence was assessed by comparing mean values at different distances from the edge to the range of variation in interior forest. The influence of clearcut edges was minimal, generally extending only 5 m from the edge, and included greater log density and different species composition, compared with interior forest. At fire edges, prominent responses to edge creation included increased snag density and lower moss cover, compared with interior forest, extending up to 40 m into the forest. This initial structural change was likely due to partial burning extending into the forest. Overall, fire edges had more snags and a different species composition than cut edges. Our hypothesis that edge influence is more extensive at fire edges than at cut edges was supported for overstory and understory structure, but not for species composition. We suggest that there is a need for management to consider the cumulative effect of the loss of fire edges on the landscape.

We compared structure and composition at forest edges created by wildfire and clear-cutting in black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP) dominated boreal forest in northwestern Quebec. Forest structure and plant species composition were sampled along transects perpendicular to eight 3- to 4-year-old fire edges and eight 2- to 5-year-old cut edges. Significance of edge influence was assessed by comparing mean values at different distances from the edge to the range of variation in interior forest. The influence of clearcut edges was minimal, generally extending only 5 m from the edge, and included greater log density and different species composition, compared with interior forest. At fire edges, prominent responses to edge creation included increased snag density and lower moss cover, compared with interior forest, extending up to 40 m into the forest. This initial structural change was likely due to partial burning extending into the forest. Overall, fire edges had more snags and a different species composition than cut edges. Our hypothesis that edge influence is more extensive at fire edges than at cut edges was supported for overstory and understory structure, but not for species composition. We suggest that there is a need for management to consider the cumulative effect of the loss of fire edges on the landscape. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]