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Methane in the form of natural gas is increasingly used as a transportation fuel, but the treatment of methane in the exhaust is a challenge since methane is a potent greenhouse gas. Pd is one of the most active catalysts for methane oxidation. Previous work has shown that transformation of Pd into the oxide, and decomposition of the oxide to metallic Pd can occur as temperature is raised in an oxidizing atmosphere, causing profound changes in catalytic reactivity. Equilibrium thermodynamics predict that the phases Pd and PdO must be in equilibrium at a well-defined temperature and oxygen pressure, since the two phases are immiscible and do not form solid solutions. But catalytic data suggests the existence of metallic Pd under conditions where only PdO should be thermodynamically stable. In this study we have explored the Pd ↔ PdO transition at high temperature using in situ XRD, TGA and from TEM examination of Pd catalysts that were quenched in liquid nitrogen or in a heating TEM holder to prevent any changes in microstructure during cooling. Corresponding data was obtained during methane oxidation, helping shed light on the nature of the working catalyst. The results show that the oxidation of metallic Pd to PdO is kinetically-controlled at high temperatures, allowing Pd to co-exist along with PdO. We refer to these as metastable Pd ↔ PdO structures. TEM shows that Pd and PdO domains can co-exist within a single particle, forming a phase boundary but allowing both Pd and PdO to be exposed to the gas phase. This kinetically controlled oxidation of Pd explains why we do not see core–shell PdO–Pd structures at elevated temperatures. Graphical Abstract

In recent years there has been an increase in the amount of attention given to within group differences among Black people, specifically, the influence racial identity may have on the counseling process. The present study investigated possible significant relationships between three variables involving Black clients in counseling: racial identity, counselor race preference and premature termination from counseling. Forty-one Black college clients at a university counseling center were administered a scale designed to measure racial identity and counselor race preference while keeping track of how many subjects prematurely terminated from counseling (left counseling before the third session or without the counselor's approval). Statistical analyses were employed comparing two of the variables at a time. Results indicated that pro-Black racial identity was positively correlated with preference for a Black counselor. Pro-White attitudes were positively correlated with fewer counseling sessions. Satisfaction of counselor race preference did not positively correlate with premature termination from counseling. Pro-Black attitudes were significantly stronger for those who preferred a Black counselor than for those who did not. The limitations of the study were noted, and the study's implications for improving Black participation in the counseling process were discussed.

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) affect 15–55% of HIV-positive patients and effective therapies are unavailable. HIV-infected monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) invade the brain of these individuals, promoting neurotoxicity. We demonstrated an increased expression of cathepsin B (CATB), a lysosomal protease, in monocytes and post-mortem brain tissues of women with HAND. Increased CATB release from HIV-infected MDM leads to neurotoxicity, and their secretion is associated with NF-κB activation, oxidative stress, and lysosomal exocytosis. Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2R) agonist, JWH-133, decreases HIV-1 replication, CATB secretion, and neurotoxicity from HIV-infected MDM, but the mechanisms are not entirely understood. We hypothesized that HIV-1 infection upregulates the expression of proteins associated with oxidative stress and that a CB2R agonist could reverse these effects. MDM were isolated from healthy women donors (n = 3), infected with HIV-1ADA, and treated with JWH-133. After 13 days post-infection, cell lysates were labeled by Tandem Mass Tag (TMT) and analyzed by LC/MS/MS quantitative proteomics bioinformatics. While HIV-1 infection upregulated CATB, NF-κB signaling, Nrf2-mediated oxidative stress response, and lysosomal exocytosis, JWH-133 treatment downregulated the expression of the proteins involved in these pathways. Our results suggest that JWH-133 is a potential alternative therapy against HIV-induced neurotoxicity and warrant in vivo studies to test its potential against HAND.

Restoration of degraded land is recognized by the international community as an important way of enhancing both biodiversity and ecosystem services, but more information is needed about its costs and benefits. In Cambridgeshire, U.K., a long‐term initiative to convert drained, intensively farmed arable land to a wetland habitat mosaic is driven by a desire both to prevent biodiversity loss from the nationally important Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve (Wicken Fen NNR) and to increase the provision of ecosystem services. We evaluated the changes in ecosystem service delivery resulting from this land conversion, using a new Toolkit for Ecosystem Service Site‐based Assessment (TESSA) to estimate biophysical and monetary values of ecosystem services provided by the restored wetland mosaic compared with the former arable land. Overall results suggest that restoration is associated with a net gain to society as a whole of$199 ha−1y−1, for a one‐off investment in restoration of $ 2320 ha−1. Restoration has led to an estimated loss of arable production of$2040 ha−1y−1, but estimated gains of $ 671 ha−1y−1 in nature‐based recreation,$120 ha−1y−1 from grazing, $ 48 ha−1y−1 from flood protection, and a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worth an estimated$72 ha−1y−1. Management costs have also declined by an estimated $ 1325 ha−1y−1. Despite uncertainties associated with all measured values and the conservative assumptions used, we conclude that there was a substantial gain to society as a whole from this land‐use conversion. The beneficiaries also changed from local arable farmers under arable production to graziers, countryside users from towns and villages, and the global community, under restoration. We emphasize that the values reported here are not necessarily transferable to other sites. A detailed site‐scale assessment of benefits and costs of the conversion of arable land to wetland has been carried out in terms of ecosystem service values in the two states. It shows that restoration is associated with a net gain to society of $199 ha−1y−1 and that the balance of benficiaries shifts from the private to the public sector.

Viral strains, age, and host factors are associated with variable immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 and disease severity. Puerto Ricans have a genetic mixture of races: European, African, and Native American. We hypothesized that unique host proteins/pathways are associated with COVID-19 disease severity in Puerto Rico. Following IRB approval, a total of 95 unvaccinated men and women aged 21–71 years old were recruited in Puerto Rico from 2020–2021. Plasma samples were collected from COVID-19-positive subjects (n = 39) and COVID-19-negative individuals (n = 56) during acute disease. COVID-19-positive individuals were stratified based on symptomatology as follows: mild (n = 18), moderate (n = 13), and severe (n = 8). Quantitative proteomics was performed in plasma samples using tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling. Labeled peptides were subjected to LC/MS/MS and analyzed by Proteome Discoverer (version 2.5), Limma software (version 3.41.15), and Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA, version 22.0.2). Cytokines were quantified using a human cytokine array. Proteomics analyses of severely affected COVID-19-positive individuals revealed 58 differentially expressed proteins. Cadherin-13, which participates in synaptogenesis, was downregulated in severe patients and validated by ELISA. Cytokine immunoassay showed that TNF-α levels decreased with disease severity. This study uncovers potential host predictors of COVID-19 severity and new avenues for treatment in Puerto Ricans.

Metastatic melanoma is a highly heterogeneous tumor; thus, methods to analyze tumor-derived cells circulating in blood should address this diversity. Taking this into account, we analyzed, using multiparametric flow cytometry, the co-expression of the melanoma markers melanoma cell adhesion molecule and melanoma-associated chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan and the tumor-initiating markers ATP-binding cassette sub-family B member 5 (ABCB5), CD271, and receptor activator of NF-κβ (RANK) in individual circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from 40 late-stage (III–IV) and 16 early-stage (I–II) melanoma patients. CTCs were heterogeneous within and between patients, with limited co-expression between the five markers analyzed. Analysis of patient matched blood and metastatic tumors revealed that ABCB5 and RANK subpopulations are more common among CTCs than in the solid tumors, suggesting a preferential selection for these cells in circulation. Pairwise comparison of CTC subpopulations longitudinally before and 6–13 weeks after treatment initiation showed that the percentage of RANK+ CTCs significantly increased in the patients undergoing targeted therapy (N=16, P<0.01). Moreover, the presence of ⩾5 RANK+ CTCs in the blood of patients undergoing targeted therapies was prognostic of shorter progression-free survival (hazards ratio 8.73, 95% confidence interval 1.82–41.75, P<0.01). Taken together, our results provide evidence of the heterogeneity among CTC subpopulations in melanoma and the differential response of these subpopulations to targeted therapy.

This paper explores a simple method for improving the zero-shot learning abilities of language models. We show that instruction tuning -- finetuning language models on a collection of tasks described via instructions -- substantially improves zero-shot performance on unseen tasks. We take a 137B parameter pretrained language model and instruction-tune it on over 60 NLP tasks verbalized via natural language instruction templates. We evaluate this instruction-tuned model, which we call FLAN, on unseen task types. FLAN substantially improves the performance of its unmodified counterpart and surpasses zero-shot 175B GPT-3 on 20 of 25 tasks that we evaluate. FLAN even outperforms few-shot GPT-3 by a large margin on ANLI, RTE, BoolQ, AI2-ARC, OpenbookQA, and StoryCloze. Ablation studies reveal that number of finetuning datasets, model scale, and natural language instructions are key to the success of instruction tuning.

PAUL BUTEL. The Atlantic, trans. Iain Hamilton Grant. London and New York: Roudedge, 1999. Pp. xiii, 330. $65.00 (US). Reviewed by Trevor Burnard BRENDAN SMITH, ed. Britain and Ireland, 900-1300: Insular Responses to Medieval European Change. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xv, 283. $59.95 (US). Reviewed by Huw Pryce HELEN NICHOLSON, ed. The Military Orders: II: Welfare and Warfare. Aldershot and Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998. Pp. xxviii, 412. $93.95 (US). Reviewed by Michael Gervers RICHARD W. KAEUPER. Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. xi, 338. $45.00 (US). Reviewed by Steven Muhlberger MAURICE KEEN, ed. Medieval Warfare: A History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 340. $40.00 (US). Reviewed by Bernard S. Bachrach H. E. J. COWDREY. The Crusades and Latin Monasticism, 11th-12th Centuries. Aldershot and Brookfield: Variorum, Ashgate, 1999. Pp. x, 274. $97.95 (US). Reviewed by John J. Contreni EDWIN S. HUNT and JAMES M. MURRAY. A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200-1550. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. ix, 277. $49.95 (US), cloth; $17.95 (US), paper. Reviewed by Maristella Botticini MARGARET HARVEY. The English in Rome, 1362-1420: Portrait of an Expatriate Community. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. x, 278. $59.95 (US). Reviewed by J. A. F. Thomson SUSHIL CHAUDHURY and MICHEL MORINEAU, eds. Merchants, Companies, and Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999; co-published Paris: Maison des Sciences de l'Homme. Pp. xi, 330. $69.95 (US). Reviewed by James Tracy DAVID B. QUINN. European Approaches to North America, 1450-1640. Aldershot and Brookfield: Ashgate, Variorum, 1998. Pp. vii,341. $101.95 (US). Reviewed by J. D. Alsop DAVID BIRMINGHAM. Portugal and Africa. New York: St Martin's Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 203. $59-95 (US). Reviewed by Edward A. Alpers THOMAS E. SHERIDAN, comp. and ed. Empire of Sand: The Seri Indians and the Struggle for Spanish Sonora, 1645-1803. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999. Pp. 493. $65.00 (US). Reviewed by Nicholas J. Bleser ANDRÉS PÉREZ DE RIBAS. History of the Triumphs of Our Holy Faith amongst the Most Barbarous and Fierce Peoples of the New World, trans., based on the 1645 Spanish original, by Daniel T. Reff, Maureen Ahern, and Richard K. Danford; annotated and with introd. by Daniel T. Reff. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999. Pp. vi, 761. $85.00 (US). Reviewed by Richard Boyer ERIK A. LUND. War for the Every Day: Generals, Knowledge, and Warfare in Early Modern Europe, 1680-1740. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1999. Pp. xii, 242. $65.00 (US). Reviewed by John A. Lynn ROGER L. NICHOLS. Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. Pp. xvii, 383. $19.95 (US), paper. Reviewed by Anthony J. Hall BARBARA B. OBERG, assisted by ELLEN R. COHN, JONATHAN R. DULL, KAREN DUVAL, LESLIE J. LINDENAUER, KATE M. OHNO, and CLAUDE A. LOPEZ, eds. The Papers of Benjamin Franklin: XXXV: May 1 through October 31, 1781. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999. Pp. lxvi, 742. $80.00 (US). Reviewed by Lawrence S. Kaplan MARY MALLOY. 'Boston Men' on the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade, 1788-1844. Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1998; dist. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. Pp. 232. $28.00 (US). Reviewed by Hilary K. Blair KIRSTY CARPENTER and PHILIP MANSEL, eds. The French Émigrés in Europe and the Struggle against Revolution, 1789-1814. New York: St Martin's Press, 1999. Pp. xxii, 236. $65.00 (US). Reviewed by William S. Cormack SUSAN THORNE. Congregational Missions and the Making of an Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Pp. ix, 247. $49.50 (US). Reviewed by Margot C. Finn GEOFFREY A. HAYWOOD. Failure of a Dream: Sidney Sonnino and the Rise and Fall of Liberal Italy, 1847-1922. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1999. Pp. vii, 573. L. 80.000. Reviewed by Frank J. Coppa STEFAN BERGER and ANGEL SMITH, eds. Nationalism, Labour, and Ethnicity, 1870-1930. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999; dist. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Pp. xii, 292. $79-95 (US). Reviewed by Geoff Eley JEFFREY A. AUERBACH. The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Display. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 280. $40.00 (US); JOHN R. DAVIS. The Great Exhibition. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999. Pp. xvii, 238. £20.00. Reviewed by Norman McCord RICHARD SHANNON. Gladstone: II: 1865-1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999; dist. Toronto: Scholarly Book Services. Pp. xvii, 702. $82.50 (CDN). Reviewed by Walter L. Arnstein KARINA URBACH. Bismarck's Favourite Englishman: Lord Odo Russell's Mission to Berlin. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1999; dist. New York: St Martin's Press. Pp. vii, 279. $59.50 (US). Reviewed by Scott W. Murray PETER F. SUGAR. East European Nationalism, Politics, and Religion. Aldershot and Brookfield: Variorum, Ashgate, 1999. Pp. xiv, 288. $97.95 (US). Reviewed by Richard Crampton EDWARD P. CRAPOL. James G. Maine: Architect of Empire. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 2000. Pp. xx, 157. $17.95 (US), paper. Reviewed by Lester D. Langley ANNE MAXWELL. Colonial Photography and Exhibitions: Representations of the 'Native' and the Making of European Identities. London and New York: Leicester University Press, 1999; dist. New York: Cassell & Continuum. Pp. xii, 243. $85.00 (US). Reviewed by Robert W. Rydell WILLIAM F. SATER and HOLGER H. HERWIG. The Grand Illusion: The Prussianization of the Chilean Army. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. Pp. 247. $50.00 (US). Reviewed by Stefan Rinke JONATHAN HASLAM. The Vices of Integrity: E. H. Carr, 1892-1982. London and New York: Verso, 1999. Pp. xiv, 306. $35.00 (US). Reviewed by David R. Marples MARC MILNER. Canada's Navy: The First Century. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. Pp. xiii, 356. $45.00 (CDN). Reviewed by Andrew Lambert GöRAN RYSTAD. Dream and Reality: The United States in Search of a Role in the Twentieth-Century World. Lund: Lund University Press, 1999. Pp. 246. SEK 256. Reviewed by Eileen P. Scully T. H. BAUGHMAN. Pilgrims on the Ice: Robert Falcon Scott's First Antarctic Expedition. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. Pp. xv, 334. $45.00 (US). Reviewed by Ann Savours DAVID WELLS and SANDRA WILSON, eds. The Russo-Japanese War in Cultural Perspective, 1904-05. New York: St Martin's Press, 1999. Pp. xiii, 213. $59.95 (US). Reviewed by Donald Keene NICHOLAS J. MILLER. Between Nation and State: Serbian Politics in Croatia before the First World War. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997. Pp. xiv, 223. $45.00 (US). Reviewed by Ivo Banac DAVID KYNASTON. The City of London: III: Illusions of Gold, 1914-1945. London: Chatto & Windus, 1999; dist. Mississauga: Random House. Pp. 581. $75.00 (CDN). Reviewed by Anthony Howe HELEN MCPHAIL. The Long Silence: Civilian Life under the German Occupation of Northern France, 1914-1918. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1999; dist. New York: St Martin's Press. Pp. x, 235. $59.50 (US). Reviewed by Hugh Clout J. LEE THOMPSON. Politicians, the Press, and Propaganda: Lord Northcliffe and the Great War, 1914-1919. Kent: Kent State University Press, 1999. Pp. xii, 319. $39.00 (US).> Reviewed by D. J. Dutton BRETT GARY. The Nervous Liberals: Propaganda Anxieties from World War I to the Cold War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. Pp. xii, 323. $19.00 (US), paper. Reviewed by David S. Foglesong SEE HENG TEOW. Japan's Cultural Policy toward China, 1918-1931: A Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, Mass, and London: Harvard University Press, 1999. Pp. xiii, 310. $39.50 (US). Reviewed by Fred Dickinson ALEXANDER PANTSOV. The Bolsheviks and the Chinese Revolution, 1919-1927. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000. Pp. xii, 324. $23.95 (US), paper. Reviewed by Arif Dirlik CAROLYN J. KITCHING. Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, 1919-34. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Pp. viii, 223. $75.00 (US). Reviewed by David Carlton PHILIP WILLIAMSON. Stanley Baldwin: Conservative Leadership and National Values. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xvi, 378. $59.95 (US). Reviewed by B. J. C. McKercher ELIZABETH THOMPSON. Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Pp. xvii, 402. $17.50 (US), paper. Reviewed by James L. Gelvin RODERICK STACKELBERG. Hitler's Germany: Origins, Interpretations, Legacies. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Pp. x, 307. $85.00 (US), cloth; $24.99 (US), paper. Reviewed by Ronald J. Granieri DENIS JUDD, ed. A British Tale of Indian and Foreign Service: The Memoirs of Sir Ian Scott. London and New York: Radcliffe Press, 1999; dist. New York: St Martin's Press. Pp. xiii, 287. $39.50 (US). Reviewed by Robin J. Moore MARTIN KOLINSKY. Britain's War in the Middle East: Strategy and Diplomacy, 1936-42. New York: St Martin's Press, 1999. Pp. xii, 308. $69.95 (US). Reviewed by Ritchie Ovendale CHRISTIAN LEITZ and DAVID J. DUNTHORN, eds. Spain in an International Context, 1936-1959. New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 1999. Pp. xvii, 334. $69.95 (US). Reviewed by Denis Smyth DIANNE KIRBY. Church, State, and Propaganda: The Archbishop of York and International Relations, A Political Study of Cyril Forster Garbett, 1942-1955. Hull: University of Hull Press, 1999. Pp. 303. £14.99, paper. Reviewed by Peter C. Kent JAMES F. TENT, ed. Academic Proconsul: Harvard Sociologist Edward Y. Hartshome and the Reopening of German Universities, 1945-1946: His Personal Account. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1998. Pp. ix, 321. DM 54.00, paper. Reviewed by Malve S. Burns THOMAS BANCHOFF. The German Problem Transformed: Institutions, Politics, and Foreign Policy, 19