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Prior research has demonstrated that the display of agentic behaviors, such as dominance, can produce backlash against female leaders because of the incongruence between these behaviors and prescribed gender roles. The current study was designed to fill a gap in existing research by investigating whether these well-established findings are moderated by race. Results revealed that dominant Black female leaders did not create the same backlash that dominant White female leaders did. Experimental evidence confirmed that White female (and Black male) leaders were conferred lower status when they expressed dominance rather than communality, whereas Black female (and White male) leaders were not. These findings highlight the importance, and complexity, of considering the intersection of gender and race when examining penalties for and proscriptions against dominant behavior of female leaders.

Prior research suggests that having a baby face is negatively correlated with success among White males in high positions of leadership. However, we explored the positive role of such \"babyfaceness\" in the success of high-ranking Black executives. Two studies revealed that Black chief executive officers (CEOs) were significantly more baby-faced than White CEOs. Black CEOs were also judged as being warmer than White CEOs, even though ordinary Blacks were rated categorically as being less warm than ordinary Whites. In addition, babyfaced Black CEOs tended to lead more prestigious corporations and earned higher salaries than mature-faced Black CEOs; these patterns did not emerge for White CEOs. Taken together, these findings suggest that babyfaceness is a disarming mechanism that facilitates the success of Black leaders by attenuating stereotypical perceptions that Blacks are threatening. Theoretical and practical implications for research on race, gender, and leadership are discussed.

Perhaps the defining feature of humanity is the social condition -- how we think about others, identify ourselves with others, and interact with groups of others. The advances of evolutionary theory, social cognition, social identity, and intergroup relations, respectively, as major fields of inquiry have been among the crowning theoretical developments in social psychology over the past three decades. Marilynn Brewer has been a leading intellectual figure in the advancement of each of them. Her theory and research have had international impact on the way we think about the self and its relation to others. This festschrift celebrates Marilynn's numerous contributions to social psychology, and includes original contributions from both leading and rising social psychologists from around the world. The volume will be of interest to social psychologists, industrial/organizational psychologists, clinical psychologists, and sociologists.

Perceived threat from outgroups is a consistent social-environmental antecedent of intergroup bias (i.e. prejudice, ingroup favoritism). The serotonin transporter gene polymorphism ( 5-HTTLPR ) has been associated with individual variations in sensitivity to context, particularly stressful and threatening situations. Here, we examined how 5-HTTLPR and environmental factors signaling potential outgroup threat dynamically interact to shape intergroup bias. Across two studies, we provide novel evidence for a gene–environment interaction on the acquisition of intergroup bias and prejudice. Greater exposure to signals of outgroup threat, such as negative prior contact with outgroups and perceived danger from the social environment, were more predictive of intergroup bias among participants possessing at least one short allele ( vs two long alleles) of 5-HTTLPR. Furthermore, this gene x environment interaction was observed for biases directed at diverse ethnic and arbitrarily-defined outgroups across measures reflecting intergroup biases in evaluation and discriminatory behavior. These findings reveal a candidate genetic mechanism for the acquisition of intergroup bias, and suggest that intergroup bias is dually inherited and transmitted through the interplay of social (i.e. contextual cues of outgroup threat) and biological mechanisms (i.e. genetic sensitivity toward threatening contexts) that regulate perceived intergroup threats.

Two studies investigated the psychological underpinnings of racial nonbias defined as extremely low or null bias on measures of implicit and explicit racial attitudes. In Study 1, racially nonbiased Whites showed differential susceptibility to affective conditioning compared with subjects with greater bias. A significant two-way interaction emerged, indicating that nonbiased individuals were significantly less likely than other individuals to acquire negative affective associations to neutral stimuli in a classical conditioning paradigm, but were more likely than other individuals to acquire positive affective associations to neutral stimuli. This pattern of findings was replicated in Study 2, in which the identification of nonbiased Whites was facilitated by their nomination by an African American acquaintance. Implications for bias formation and prejudice reduction are discussed.

According to self‐monitoring theory (Snyder, 1987), high self‐monitors tailor their self‐presentation for the sake of desired public appearances, whereas low selfmonitors are relatively unlikely to practice such situationally guided impression management strategies. It was therefore predicted that, when asked to publicly express their attitudes regarding a social group, high self‐monitors would modify their expressive behaviour in a direction consistent with the attitudes attributed to their audience. Conversely, low self‐monitors would be unaffected by their audience's attitude towards this group. A study was conducted to test this hypothesis: participants, whose level of self‐monitoring and prejudice towards homosexuals had been previously measured, were asked toreport their thoughts regarding this group in an open‐ended manner. They anticipated discussing these thoughts with an audience perceived as either prejudiced or tolerant, orthey expected that their responses would remain private. In line with predictions, highself‐monitors expressed more prejudice when the audience was perceived as prejudiced than tolerant, whereas low self‐monitors were not affected by the audience's attitude.

Perhaps the defining feature of humanity is the social condition -- how we think about others, identify ourselves with others, and interact with groups of others. The advances of evolutionary theory, social cognition, social identity, and intergroup relations, respectively, as major fields of inquiry have been among the crowning theoretical developments in social psychology over the past three decades. Marilynn Brewer has been a leading intellectual figure in the advancement of each of them. Her theory and research have had international impact on the way we think about the self and its relation to others. This festschrift celebrates Marilynn's numerous contributions to social psychology, and includes original contributions from both leading and rising social psychologists from around the world. The volume will be of interest to social psychologists, industrial/organizational psychologists, clinical psychologists, and sociologists.

Two studies investigated the psychological underpinnings of racial nonbias, defined as extremely low or null bias on measures of implicit and explicit racial attitudes. In Study 1, racially nonbiased Whites showed differential susceptibility to affective conditioning compared with subjects with greater bias. A significant two-way interaction emerged, indicating that nonbiased individuals were significantly less likely than other individuals to acquire negative affective associations to neutral stimuli in a classical conditioning paradigm, but were more likely than other individuals to acquire positive affective associations to neutral stimuli. This pattern of findings was replicated in Study 2, in which the identification of nonbiased Whites was facilitated by their nomination by an African American acquaintance. Implications for bias formation and prejudice reduction are discussed. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

The central assumption of this chapter is that a focus on the comparative degree of hardship among socially disadvantaged groups does little to advance our understanding of the persistence of disadvantage in general, or the ways in which organizations can create greater inclusion toward a variety of socially disadvantaged groups. A more productive approach to understanding inclusive leadership involves a nuanced investigation of the distinctions that exist among socially disadvantaged groups (e.g., White women, Black men, Black women), in addition to considering the mechanisms that regulate the dynamics between the dominant group (i.e., White men) and the various socially disadvantaged groups that must interact with it to access power and leadership.

A series of seven studies converge in demonstrating that controlled discriminatory behavior can often occur outside of conscious awareness or intent. Results indicate that the racial group membership of criminal defendants in a criminal sentencing paradigm had a strong impact on retributive outcomes, with Hispanic defendants receiving significantly harsher sentences than White defendants for the identical crime. The studies described in Chapter 1 sought to ascertain the existence of discriminatory bias in criminal sentencing, and to demonstrate that such bias is unintentional. It was demonstrated that discrimination was unrelated to individual differences in prejudice (Experiment 1) and stereotyping (Experiment 2), as well as participants' self-perceptions of discrimination (Experiments 1 and 2). Chapter 2 reports studies designed to rule out certain methodological and demand alternative explanation for the findings of Chapter 1. Experiment 3 showed that discriminatory bias occurs even under high accountability conditions while Experiment 4 ruled out the possibility that bias arose due to a flawed dependent variable. Finally, Chapter 3 explores the extent to which the bias is correctable and also explores underlying antecedents of the effect. Overall, results of these experiments provide compelling evidence that discrimination may occur without awareness or intention, even when perceivers have complete control over their actions.