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Fatty acid (FA) overload imposes substantial stress on hypothalamic neurons, whilst whether cortical input could improve metabolic resilience of hypothalamic neurons remains poorly understood. Here, we reconstructed human cortical‐hypothalamic assembloids (CO‐HTO assembloids) to investigate how cortical input modulates hypothalamic responses to FA. Our results revealed that FA could impair neuronal survival, α‐MSH secretion, and electrophysiological activity in hypothalamic organoids (HTOs). Remarkably, fusion with cortical organoids (COs) could prevent FA‐induced apoptosis and functional defects, preserve mitochondrial respiration, and reduce lipid accumulation in HTOs. Also, transcriptomic and functional analyses revealed that cortical input could activate PGC1α‐dependent mitochondrial biogenesis. Furthermore, pharmacological PGC1α activation or glutamate treatment rescued the FA‐induced defects in HTOs. Collectively, our findings uncovered a cortico‐hypothalamic regulatory axis and found glutamate‐driven PGC1α activation might maintain hypothalamic neuronal stability and improve resilience to metabolic stress. Our CO‐HTO assembloids provided a promising platform to investigate complex inter‐regional communications and related neurological and metabolic disorders.

Background/Objectives: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has an irreversible disease course, making early intervention a key measure to delay disease progression. However, existing therapies are limited by weak brain-targeted delivery efficiency due to the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and low bioavailability of drugs, making it difficult to address the complexity of AD’s pathological mechanisms. Methods: Addressing these limiting factors, this research aims to develop an early AD intervention formulation with “high targeting, high bioavailability, and high biosafety.” Based on the principle of drug synergistic effects, this study employed the reverse solvent method and optimized the combination ratio of Ginsenoside Rg3 and Naringenin (Nar) to design and prepare a self-assembling nano-delivery system (Rg3-Nar-NPs, GNN). The study utilized intranasal administration to bypass the BBB through the direct pathway between the nasal mucosa and central nervous system. Results: This approach enabled targeted accumulation of the drug in brain lesion areas, significantly reducing Aβ deposition, oxidative stress, and inflammatory factor surges caused by early AD, thereby improving cognitive dysfunction in mice. Moreover, GNN demonstrated superior biosafety and bioavailability compared to the individual components. Through transcriptomic analysis, the study elucidated for the first time that GNN can activate the OXT/ERK/Fos pathway to break the malignant cycle of ROS–neuroinflammation, inhibiting the amplification effect of early AD pathological damage. Conclusions: This research provides new molecular targets and drug options for multi-target synergistic intervention of early AD, showing potential as a candidate strategy for precise early AD intervention and laying theoretical and experimental foundations for subsequent clinical translation.

Abstract Purpose Age and sex are known to influence outcomes in neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs), yet their molecular determinants remain poorly defined. We queried a real-world dataset of gastrointestinal (GI) tract and pancreatic (P) NENs and characterized their clinical, molecular, and immune profiles. Methods One thousand nine hundred thirty-five cases (GI: n = 1431, P: n = 504) of NENs were analyzed using Next Generation or Whole Exome Sequencing of DNA, and 1211/1935 cases (GI: n = 917, P: n = 294) underwent Whole Transcriptome Sequencing. We compared the molecular and immune profile with respect to age and sex. Results Older age at diagnosis was associated with worse survival in both GI- and P-NENs. In patients with GI-NENs, there was decreased survival in males compared to females. In GI-NENs, TP53, RB1, FAT1, and KMT2D mutations, as well as immune checkpoint gene (ICG) expressions of LAG3, CD80, and HAVCR2 and M1 macrophages increased with increasing age while APC mutations and M2 macrophages decreased with increasing age. In P-NENs, TP53, RB1, KRAS, and SMAD4 mutations and CD4+ T cells increased with increasing age while MUTYH and NTHL1 mutations and M2 macrophages decreased with increasing age. In GI-NENs, TP53, FBXW7, and TERT (promoter) mutations and genomic loss of heterozygosity (gLOH) were increased in males. In P-NENs, PIK3CA mutations and dMMR/MSI-H were increased in females. Conclusion Our study queries one of the largest datasets of GI- and P-NENs to date and highlights distinct age- and sex-specific molecular and immune profiles. Given the exploratory nature of these analyses and borderline significance, these results remain hypothesis-generating, providing an initial framework for future validation studies.