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Growing global energy demands ensure the continued growth of energy development. Energy development in wildlife areas can significantly impact wildlife populations. Efforts to mitigate development impacts to wildlife are on-going, but the effectiveness of such efforts is seldom monitored or assessed. Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) are sensitive to energy development and likely serve as an effective umbrella species for other sagebrush-steppe obligate wildlife. We assessed the response of birds within an energy development area before and after the implementation of mitigation action. Additionally, we quantified changes in habitat distribution and abundance in pre- and post-mitigation landscapes. Sage-grouse avoidance of energy development at large spatial scales is well documented. We limited our research to directly within an energy development field in order to assess the influence of mitigation in close proximity to energy infrastructure. We used nest-location data (n = 488) within an energy development field to develop habitat selection models using logistic regression on data from 4 years of research prior to mitigation and for 4 years following the implementation of extensive mitigation efforts (e.g., decreased activity, buried powerlines). The post-mitigation habitat selection models indicated less avoidance of wells (well density β = 0.18 ± 0.08) than the pre-mitigation models (well density β = -0.09 ± 0.11). However, birds still avoided areas of high well density and nests were not found in areas with greater than 4 wells per km2 and the majority of nests (63%) were located in areas with ≤ 1 well per km2. Several other model coefficients differed between the two time periods and indicated stronger selection for sagebrush (pre-mitigation β = 0.30 ± 0.09; post-mitigation β = 0.82 ± 0.08) and less avoidance of rugged terrain (pre-mitigation β = -0.35 ± 0.12; post-mitigation β = -0.05 ± 0.09). Mitigation efforts implemented may be responsible for the measurable improvement in sage-grouse nesting habitats within the development area. However, we cannot reject alternative hypotheses concerning the influence of population density and intraspecific competition. Additionally, we were unable to assess the actual fitness consequences of mitigation or the source-sink dynamics of the habitats. We compared the pre-mitigation and post-mitigation models predicted as maps with habitats ranked from low to high relative probability of use (equal-area bins: 1 - 5). We found more improvement in habitat rank between the two time periods around mitigated wells compared to non-mitigated wells. Informed mitigation within energy development fields could help improve habitats within the field. We recommend that any mitigation effort include well-informed plans to monitor the effectiveness of the implemented mitigation actions that assess both habitat use and relevant fitness parameters.

Energy infrastructure and associated habitat loss can lead to reduced reproductive rates for a variety of species including the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). Our goal was to refine our understanding of how the physical footprint of energy development relates to sage-grouse nest and brood survival. Our survival analyses were conditional upon the amount of surface disturbance female sage-grouse were exposed to during reproductive stages. We quantified levels of exposure and compared them to the surface disturbance levels of the surrounding area. From 2008–2014, we collected data in 6 study areas in Wyoming, USA, containing 4 primary types of renewable and nonrenewable energy development. Our research focused on press disturbance (i.e., disturbance sustained after initial disturbance and associated with existing energy infrastructure and human activity). Our results suggest exposure to press disturbance during nesting and brood-rearing was related to lower nest and brood survival, which manifested at different spatial scales. Our analysis of nest survival suggested that the likelihood of a successful nest was negatively associated with the amount of press disturbance within an 8-km² area. Broods exposed to any press disturbance within a 1-km² area were less likely to survive compared to broods not exposed to press disturbance. Female sage-grouse consistently used habitat with lower disturbance levels during reproductive periods. Greater than 90% of nest and brood-rearing locations were in habitat with <3% press disturbance within a 2.7-km² area. Our research links surface disturbance associated with press disturbance to reproductive costs incurred by sage-grouse exposed to diverse energy development. Our results demonstrate a pattern of female avoidance of areas where press disturbance was high during nesting and brood-rearing and survival of nests and broods were highest in areas that had the least amount of disturbance. Our findings underscore the importance of minimizing disturbance to maintain viable sage-grouse populations.

Despite a multitude of studies on sage-grouse (Centrocercus spp.), there is still sparse information on the predator communities that influence sage-grouse productivity and how these predator communities may change when sagebrush habitats are altered by human activities. As a proof-of-concept, we used mammalian hairs collected at depredated greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) nests and mitochondrial DNA sequencing to identify mammalian species that deposited the hairs at the depredated nests. We monitored nests of radiomarked female greater sage-grouse in an oil and gas development area in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming, USA, from 2009 to 2011. We collected mammalian hair samples from 56 depredated nests. We detected 5 species: American badger (Taxidea taxus), bobcat (Lynx rufus), coyote (Canis latrans), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). Red fox and striped skunk are considered exotic predators—species outside of their historical range—in our study area and represented 20% of our detections. This method could be improved by gathering and analyzing various types of DNA sources including predator saliva from egg shell fragments, predator scat, and even feathers left by avian predators. Our results suggest that this method has merit as a noninvasive tool to better understand the community of mammalian nest predators present within large study areas, and role of exotic predators in sagebrush habitats.

Capturing greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) using standard approaches can be challenging and inefficient, particularly in areas with relatively small populations and patchy habitat. In areas with low population densities, traditional trapping techniques such as drop-netting and spotlighting have been largely ineffective. To increase trapping efficiency in such situations, we developed a new method to capture greater sage-grouse in Wyoming, USA, during spring and autumn 2008–2011.We captured 92 sage-grouse (30 adult females, 57 yearling females, 3 hatch-year females, and 2 adult males) using a CODA net launcher modified to mount on a front receiver of a truck or all-terrain vehicle. We had 71% success (82 successful captures of ≥1 grouse in 115 attempts). We captured grouse during spring on the periphery of leks, to reduce disturbance of lekking behavior, and during autumn along gravel roads. Capture mortality was <1.0%. We recorded low mortality (4.6%) up to 2 weeks postcapture that may have been attributed to capture and handling stress. This technique proved effective at capturing greater sage-grouse and we believe this method can be effective at capturing other lekking species of prairie grouse with similar behavioral traits.

Sagebrush Artemisia spp. habitats being developed for oil and gas reserves are inhabited by sagebrush obligate species — including the greater sage-grouse Centrocercus urophasianus (sage-grouse) that is currently being considered for protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Numerous studies suggest increasing oil and gas development may exacerbate species extinction risks. Therefore, there is a great need for effective on-site mitigation to reduce impacts to co-occurring wildlife such as sage-grouse. Nesting success is a primary factor in avian productivity and declines in nesting success are also thought to be an important contributor to population declines in sage-grouse. From 2008 to 2011 we monitored 296 nests of radio-marked female sage-grouse in a natural gas (NG) field in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming, USA, and compared nest survival in mitigated and non-mitigated development areas and relatively unaltered areas to determine if specific mitigation practices were enhancing nest survival. Nest survival was highest in relatively unaltered habitats followed by mitigated, and then non-mitigated NG areas. Reservoirs used for holding NG discharge water had the greatest support as having a direct relationship to nest survival. Within a 5-km2 area surrounding a nest, the probability of nest failure increased by about 15% for every 1.5 km increase in reservoir water edge. Reducing reservoirs was a mitigation focus and sage-grouse nesting in mitigated areas were exposed to almost half of the amount of water edge compared to those in non-mitigated areas. Further, we found that an increase in sagebrush cover was positively related to nest survival. Consequently, mitigation efforts focused on reducing reservoir construction and reducing surface disturbance, especially when the surface disturbance results in sagebrush removal, are important to enhancing sage-grouse nesting success.

Movements of 11 female and 1 male adult Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) wintering in coastal Gulf of Mexico, Tamaulipas, Mexico, were monitored with satellite-received transmitters (PTTs), 1997–1998. Median areas for minimum convex polygon winter home ranges at 50% and 90% levels (both years) were 1173 and 8311 ha, respectively. Most birds left wintering grounds in the first week of May. Duration of northward migration averaged 30 days. Distances between capture location and summer settling place were between 4580 and 5844 km; birds traversed 40.4–46.4 degrees of latitude. Birds summered between far western Canada and coastal west Greenland. One was followed to the same summering ground in both years. Autumnal migration routes were through the middle of the continent, and initiated in August and September. Falcons arrived on wintering grounds in September and October, averaging 40 days to make the journey. PTT data and capture locations of birds trapped in more than 1 year suggest fidelity to wintering areas, although perhaps not particular winter home ranges. Migración y Áreas de Ocurrencia de Halcones Peregrinos Invernantes en la Costa del Golfo de México, Tamaulipas, México Resumen. Entre 1997 y 1998, se monitorearon con transmisores de satellite (PTTs) los movimientos de 12 halcones peregrinos adultos (Falco peregrinus; 11 hembras y 1 macho) invernando en la costa del Golfo de México, Tamaulipas, México. Se utilizaron niveles de precisión del 50% y 90% en los polígonos mínimos estimados para describir los hambitos hogareños de invernada (en ambos años); éstos fueron de 1173 y 8311 ha, respectivamente. La mayoría de las aves abandonaron las areas de invernada en la primera semana de mayo. La duración de la migración hacia el Norte promedió 30 días. Las distancias entre los lugares donde las aves fueron capturadas y donde se establecieron en el verano variaron entre 4580 y 5844 km; así que éstas recorrieron entre 40.4 y 46.4 grados de latitud. Los halcones pasaron el verano entre el lejano oeste de Canadá y la costa oeste de Groenlandia. Uno de ellos fue seguido en ambos años hasta la misma área de veraneo. Las rutas migratorias del otoño tuvieron lugar a través del centro del continente y se iniciaron en agosto y septiembre. Los halcones peregrinos llegaron a las áreas de inviernada en septiembre y octubre, promediando 40 días para hacer el recorrido. Los datos de los PTTs e información sobre las ubicaciones de los lugares de captura de las aves atrapadas en más de un año sugieren fidelidad a las áreas de invierno, pero tal vez no a hambitos hogareños particulares.

Mean p,p'-DDE (DDE) residues in plasma of combined adult and subadult female peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) decreased significantly in spring migrants captured at Padre Island, Texas, between 1978 and 1979 (1.00 μg/g wet wt), 1980 (0.57), 1984 (0.50), and 1994 (0.34). No other organochlorine pesticides were detected (detection limit, 0.02 μg/g) in 1994. Mirex, oxychlordane, dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide, and the parent material DDT were routinely found in plasma samples in earlier years. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found in 75% of the adult females in 1994, but PCB data collected in 1984 were not comparable. The decrease in organochlorine pesticide residues was associated with peregrine population increases in the Arctic and elsewhere in North America. The arctic peregrine (F. p. tundrius) was removed from the list of Threatened and Endangered Species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1994. Satellite telemetry and plasma sampling provide new insight into continuing sources of DDE and PCBs. Chemicals that replaced organochlorine pesticides require additional investigation in North and South America.

Growing global energy demands ensure the continued growth of energy development. Energy development in wildlife areas can significantly impact wildlife populations. Efforts to mitigate development impacts to wildlife are on-going, but the effectiveness of such efforts is seldom monitored or assessed. Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) are sensitive to energy development and likely serve as an effective umbrella species for other sagebrush-steppe obligate wildlife. We assessed the response of birds within an energy development area before and after the implementation of mitigation action. Additionally, we quantified changes in habitat distribution and abundance in pre- and post-mitigation landscapes. Sage-grouse avoidance of energy development at large spatial scales is well documented. We limited our research to directly within an energy development field in order to assess the influence of mitigation in close proximity to energy infrastructure. We used nest-location data (n = 488) within an energy development field to develop habitat selection models using logistic regression on data from 4 years of research prior to mitigation and for 4 years following the implementation of extensive mitigation efforts (e.g., decreased activity, buried powerlines). The post-mitigation habitat selection models indicated less avoidance of wells (well density beta = 0.18 plus or minus 0.08) than the pre-mitigation models (well density beta = -0.09 plus or minus 0.11). However, birds still avoided areas of high well density and nests were not found in areas with greater than 4 wells per km2 and the majority of nests (63%) were located in areas with less than or equal to 1 well per km2. Several other model coefficients differed between the two time periods and indicated stronger selection for sagebrush (pre-mitigation beta = 0.30 plus or minus 0.09; post-mitigation beta = 0.82 plus or minus 0.08) and less avoidance of rugged terrain (pre-mitigation beta = -0.35 plus or minus 0.12; post-mitigation beta = -0.05 plus or minus 0.09). Mitigation efforts implemented may be responsible for the measurable improvement in sage-grouse nesting habitats within the development area. However, we cannot reject alternative hypotheses concerning the influence of population density and intraspecific competition. Additionally, we were unable to assess the actual fitness consequences of mitigation or the source-sink dynamics of the habitats. We compared the pre-mitigation and post-mitigation models predicted as maps with habitats ranked from low to high relative probability of use (equal-area bins: 1 - 5). We found more improvement in habitat rank between the two time periods around mitigated wells compared to non-mitigated wells. Informed mitigation within energy development fields could help improve habitats within the field. We recommend that any mitigation effort include well-informed plans to monitor the effectiveness of the implemented mitigation actions that assess both habitat use and relevant fitness parameters.

Movements of 11 female and 1 male adult Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) wintering in coastal Gulf of Mexico, Tamaulipas, Mexico, were monitored with satellite-received transmitters (PTTs), 1997–1998. Median areas for minimum convex polygon winter home ranges at 50% and 90% levels (both years) were 1173 and 8311 ha, respectively. Most birds left wintering grounds in the first week of May. Duration of northward migration averaged 30 days. Distances between capture location and summer settling place were between 4580 and 5844 km; birds traversed 40.4–46.4 degrees of latitude. Birds summered between far western Canada and coastal west Greenland. One was followed to the same summering ground in both years. Autumnal migration routes were through the middle of the continent, and initiated in August and September. Falcons arrived on wintering grounds in September and October, averaging 40 days to make the journey. PTT data and capture locations of birds trapped in more than 1 year suggest fidelity to wintering areas, although perhaps not particular winter home ranges. Migración y Áreas de Ocurrencia de Halcones Peregrinos Invernantes en la Costa del Golfo de México, Tamaulipas, México Resumen. Entre 1997 y 1998, se monitorearon con transmisores de satellite (PTTs) los movimientos de 12 halcones peregrinos adultos (Falco peregrinus; 11 hembras y 1 macho) invernando en la costa del Golfo de México, Tamaulipas, México. Se utilizaron niveles de precisión del 50% y 90% en los polígonos mínimos estimados para describir los hambitos hogareños de invernada (en ambos años); éstos fueron de 1173 y 8311 ha, respectivamente. La mayoría de las aves abandonaron las areas de invernada en la primera semana de mayo. La duración de la migración hacia el Norte promedió 30 días. Las distancias entre los lugares donde las aves fueron capturadas y donde se establecieron en el verano variaron entre 4580 y 5844 km; así que éstas recorrieron entre 40.4 y 46.4 grados de latitud. Los halcones pasaron el verano entre el lejano oeste de Canadá y la costa oeste de Groenlandia. Uno de ellos fue seguido en ambos años hasta la misma área de veraneo. Las rutas migratorias del otoño tuvieron lugar a través del centro del continente y se iniciaron en agosto y septiembre. Los halcones peregrinos llegaron a las áreas de inviernada en septiembre y octubre, promediando 40 días para hacer el recorrido. Los datos de los PTTs e información sobre las ubicaciones de los lugares de captura de las aves atrapadas en más de un año sugieren fidelidad a las áreas de invierno, pero tal vez no a hambitos hogareños particulares.