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Winkler et al . show that the glucose transporter GLUT1 in brain endothelium is necessary for the maintenance of proper brain capillary networks and blood-brain barrier integrity. The study also shows that loss of GLUT1 in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease accelerates BBB breakdown, perfusion and metabolic stress resulting in behavioral deficits, elevated amyloid beta levels and neurodegeneration. The glucose transporter GLUT1 at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) mediates glucose transport into the brain. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by early reductions in glucose transport associated with diminished GLUT1 expression at the BBB. Whether GLUT1 reduction influences disease pathogenesis remains, however, elusive. Here we show that GLUT1 deficiency in mice overexpressing amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) precursor protein leads to early cerebral microvascular degeneration, blood flow reductions and dysregulation and BBB breakdown, and to accelerated amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) pathology, reduced Aβ clearance, diminished neuronal activity, behavioral deficits, and progressive neuronal loss and neurodegeneration that develop after initial cerebrovascular degenerative changes. We also show that GLUT1 deficiency in endothelium, but not in astrocytes, initiates the vascular phenotype as shown by BBB breakdown. Thus, reduced BBB GLUT1 expression worsens Alzheimer's disease cerebrovascular degeneration, neuropathology and cognitive function, suggesting that GLUT1 may represent a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease vasculo-neuronal dysfunction and degeneration.

Equilibrium isomerization of retinol is a new activity now attributable to DES1. 11- cis -retinol synthesized by DES1 in Müller cells of the retina can be converted to the visual chromophore for regenerating opsin pigment in cone photoreceptors. Absorption of a light particle by an opsin-pigment causes photoisomerization of its retinaldehyde chromophore. Restoration of light sensitivity to the resulting apo-opsin requires chemical re-isomerization of the photobleached chromophore. This is carried out by a multistep enzyme pathway called the visual cycle. Accumulating evidence suggests the existence of an alternative visual cycle for regenerating opsins in daylight. Here we identified dihydroceramide desaturase-1 (DES1) as a retinol isomerase and an excellent candidate for isomerase-2 in this alternative pathway. DES1 is expressed in retinal Müller cells, where it coimmunoprecipitates with cellular retinaldehyde binding protein (CRALBP). Adenoviral gene therapy with DES1 partially rescued the biochemical and physiological phenotypes in Rpe65 −/− mice lacking isomerohydrolase (isomerase-1). Knockdown of DES1 expression by RNA interference concordantly reduced isomerase-2 activity in cultured Müller cells. Purified DES1 had very high isomerase-2 activity in the presence of appropriate cofactors, suggesting that DES1 by itself is sufficient for isomerase activity.

Absorption of a photon by a rhodopsin or cone-opsin pigment isomerizes its 11- cis- retinaldehyde (11- cis- RAL) chromophore to all- trans -retinaldehyde (all- trans -RAL), which dissociates after a brief period of activation. Light sensitivity is restored to the resulting apo-opsin when it recombines with another 11- cis- RAL. Conversion of all- trans- RAL to 11- cis- RAL is carried out by an enzyme pathway called the visual cycle in cells of the retinal pigment epithelium. A second visual cycle is present in Müller cells of the retina. The retinol isomerase for this noncanonical pathway is dihydroceramide desaturase (DES1), which catalyzes equilibrium isomerization of retinol. Because 11- cis- retinol (11- cis- ROL) constitutes only a small fraction of total retinols in an equilibrium mixture, a subsequent step involving selective removal of 11- cis- ROL is required to drive synthesis of 11- cis- retinoids for production of visual chromophore. Selective esterification of 11- cis- ROL is one possibility. Crude homogenates of chicken retinas rapidly convert all- trans -ROL to 11- cis- retinyl esters (11- cis- REs) with minimal formation of other retinyl-ester isomers. This enzymatic activity implies the existence of an 11- cis- specific retinyl-ester synthase in Müller cells. Here, we evaluated multifunctional O- acyltransferase (MFAT) as a candidate for this 11- cis- RE-synthase. MFAT exhibited much higher catalytic efficiency as a synthase of 11- cis- REs versus other retinyl-ester isomers. Further, we show that MFAT is expressed in Müller cells. Finally, homogenates of cells coexpressing DES1 and MFAT catalyzed the conversion of all- trans -ROL to 11- cis- RP, similar to what we observed with chicken-retina homogenates. MFAT is therefore an excellent candidate for the retinyl-ester synthase that cooperates with DES1 to drive synthesis of 11- cis- retinoids by mass action.

Retinyl esters represent an insoluble storage form of vitamin A and are substrates for the retinoid isomerase (Rpe65) in cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). The major retinyl-ester synthase in RPE cells is lecithin:retinol acyl-transferase (LRAT). A second palmitoyl coenzyme A-dependent retinyl-ester synthase activity has been observed in RPE homogenates but the protein responsible has not been identified. Here we show that diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase-1 (DGAT1) is expressed in multiple cells of the retina including RPE and Müller glial cells. DGAT1 catalyzes the synthesis of retinyl esters from multiple retinol isomers with similar catalytic efficiencies. Loss of DGAT1 in dgat1(-/-) mice has no effect on retinal anatomy or the ultrastructure of photoreceptor outer-segments (OS) and RPE cells. Levels of visual chromophore in dgat1(-/-) mice were also normal. However, the normal build-up of all-trans-retinyl esters (all-trans-RE's) in the RPE during the first hour after a deep photobleach of visual pigments in the retina was not seen in dgat1(-/-) mice. Further, total retinyl-ester synthase activity was reduced in both dgat1(-/-) retina and RPE.

The glucose transporter GLUT1 at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) mediates glucose transport into the brain. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by early reductions in glucose transport associated with diminished GLUT1 expression at the BBB. Whether GLUT1 reduction influences disease pathogenesis remains, however, elusive. Here, we show that GLUT1 deficiency in mice overexpressing amyloid β-petpide (Aβ) precursor protein leads to: 1) early cerebral microvascular degeneration, blood flow reductions and dysregulation, and BBB breakdown; and (2) accelerated amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) pathology, reduced Aβ clearance, diminished neuronal activity, behavioral deficits, and progressive neuronal loss and neurodegeneration that develop after initial cerebrovascular degenerative changes. We also show that GLUT1 deficiency in endothelium, but not in astrocytes, initiates the vascular phenotype as shown by BBB breakdown. Thus, reduced BBB GLUT1 expression worsens Alzheimer's disease cerebrovascular degeneration, neuropathology and cognitive function suggesting that GLUT1 may represent a novel therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease vasculo-neuronal dysfunction and degeneration.

Absorption of a light particle by an opsin-pigment causes photoisomerization of its retinaldehyde chromophore. Restoration of light sensitivity to the resulting apo-opsin requires chemical re-isomerization of the photobleached chromophore. This is carried out by a multistep enzyme pathway called the visual cycle. Accumulating evidence suggests the existence of an alternative visual cycle for regenerating opsins in daylight. Here we identified dihydroceramide desaturase-1 (DES1) as a retinol isomerase and an excellent candidate for isomerase-2 in this alternative pathway. DES1 is expressed in retinal Mueller cells, where it coimmunoprecipitates with cellular retinaldehyde binding protein (CRALBP). Adenoviral gene therapy with DES1 partially rescued the biochemical and physiological phenotypes in Rpe65 super(-/-) mice lacking isomerohydrolase (isomerase-1). Knockdown of DES1 expression by RNA interference concordantly reduced isomerase-2 activity in cultured Mueller cells. Purified DES1 had very high isomerase-2 activity in the presence of appropriate cofactors, suggesting that DES1 by itself is sufficient for isomerase activity.

Retinyl esters represent an insoluble storage form of vitamin A and are substrates for the retinoid isomerase (Rpe65) in cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). The major retinyl-ester synthase in RPE cells is lecithin:retinol acyl-transferase (LRAT). A second palmitoyl coenzyme A-dependent retinyl-ester synthase activity has been observed in RPE homogenates but the protein responsible has not been identified. Here we show that diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase-1 (DGAT1) is expressed in multiple cells of the retina including RPE and Mueller glial cells. DGAT1 catalyzes the synthesis of retinyl esters from multiple retinol isomers with similar catalytic efficiencies. Loss of DGAT1 in dgat1 -/- mice has no effect on retinal anatomy or the ultrastructure of photoreceptor outer-segments (OS) and RPE cells. Levels of visual chromophore in dgat1 -/- mice were also normal. However, the normal build-up of all-trans-retinyl esters (all-trans-RE's) in the RPE during the first hour after a deep photobleach of visual pigments in the retina was not seen in dgat1 -/- mice. Further, total retinyl-ester synthase activity was reduced in both dgat1 -/- retina and RPE.