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This study critically discusses historical developments in wetland management legislation through the twentieth century up to present in Zimbabwe, and how the legislative and management frameworks of different time periods have influenced wetland management strategies, including the needs and involvement of local wetland users. This analysis shows that in the twentieth century colonial era (up to 1980), laws prohibited the use of wetlands for some purposes and that local communities were largely excluded from using wetland resources. After independence in 1980, laws inherited from the colonial era were still applied despite the changed political and social situation, and this resulted in tensions between different wetland users. Since 2002, the Environmental Management Agency in Zimbabwe has regulated wetland use through licensing of wetland resource exploitation and through training of wetland users. However, this has not been effective and wetlands throughout the country have continued to be exploited for agriculture and by encroachment of urban infrastructure. There are also wider national-level tensions between the need for sustainable wetland management and conservation, and political imperatives for economic development by exploiting wetland resources. Balancing these issues underlies the challenges for wetland management in Zimbabwe and other developing countries. Based on this analysis, key recommendations are made regarding the need for closing legislative gaps in wetland management, inventorising and monitoring wetland properties, and engaging fully with community stakeholders.

Rural wetlands, especially in developing countries, have been exploited for different ecosystem services because they are considered safety nets for food production and are important for livelihood strategies and human wellbeing. However, there are gaps in knowledge of the ecosystem services provided by small, valley bottom wetlands, especially in dryland areas and how these services are used and managed by local communities. This study focuses on the ecosystem services of valley bottom wetlands in Zindi, the Honde Valley, in rural eastern Zimbabwe. Ethnographic observations of wetland users’ activities and individual interviews with local residents and village heads were undertaken in this study, focusing on how people make use of the different ecosystem services that are derived from these wetlands. Results show that the wetlands are mainly utilised for provisioning services, but that these are related to the availability and properties of supporting and regulatory services in the wetland environment. All of these services are also strongly mediated by the traditional cultural contexts and values held by local communities. The results show that the exploitation of some ecosystem services leads to negative impacts on the availability or properties of others, and this means that there are trade-offs in the uses and management by individuals and communities as a whole. These feedbacks and trade-offs are not well explored in most studies but are critical in considering community responses to changing wetland resources, in particular under climate change. This study recommends that policymakers should include small and often hitherto overlooked wetlands in their management plans, since they are critical for supporting rural livelihoods. It is also important that wetland management plans aim to improve the range and sustainability of ecosystem services available and avoid the need for unnecessary trade-offs in their use by local communities.

Wetlands are crucial as they provide different ecosystem services that support livelihoods. However, uncontrolled use of wetlands globally has compromised wetland sustainability and negatively impacted on people and the natural environment. The thrust of this qualitative study is to understand how people in Zindi rural area, Honde Valley, Zimbabwe, use and interact with wetlands. The study also assessed the specific problems encountered by farmers in using wetlands for agriculture. Snowball and purposive sampling strategies were used to select participants for individual interviews and focus group discussions. Ethnographic techniques, such as participant observations and participatory action research, were also used to collect data. These were complemented with photos and direct observations of the physical characteristics of the six wetlands, and how people were using these wetlands. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with farmers, the village heads, Agritex officers, seed companies and an Environmental Management Agency (EMA) official. Results show that wetland users depend on the valley bottom wetlands for provisioning and cultural services, and there are some changes between the ways in which wetlands have been used in the past compared to the present. Some of these changes included different types of crops grown on the wetlands and an increase in the amount of land used for wetland farming. As the wetlands were exploited mainly for provisioning services, some ecosystem supporting and regulatory services were affected. However, the changes reported by the farmers on different wetland elements such as the decrease in plant and animal species, loss of soil fertility and decrease in wetland water reflect how exploitation of some services has compromised other services. Therefore, the preservation of ecological characteristics and hydrological processes of the wetlands is threatened. The study also revealed that wetland farmers interacted with different stakeholders in different ways – with other wetland farmers when sharing ideas and seeds; village heads during wetland laws implementation; seed companies during seed breeding and seed selling; EMA officials during wetland restoration and implementation of wetland laws; and with Agritex officers when being shown good agronomy practises. In using wetlands for agriculture, farmers encountered challenges such as pests and diseases, stealing of crops, and water shortage in some parts of the wetlands. Although farmers were trying to employ sustainable methods of wetland exploitation, most of these methods were not correctly used. Training on conservation wetland farming was limited, hence farmers inappropriately employed dryland conservation farming techniques on wetland areas. Wetland users were not getting enough information from the EMA on wetland sustainable wetland use and management. Lack of collaboration amongst stakeholders involved in wetland use and management has compromised the sustainability of wetlands. The study contributes in advancing knowledge on how wetland use, methods of wetland exploitation, and different environmental attitudes by wetland users can affect the integrity and sustainability of the wetland ecosystem and sustainable development in a developing world context. This study recommends that the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement in Zimbabwe, through the Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services and the EMA, should ensure wise use of wetlands by equipping wetland farmers with wetland conservation farming skills and ensuring effective monitoring and implementing of wetlands laws.

Most wetlands in urban environments, especially metropolitan cities in developing countries like Zimbabwe, are being threatened by human activities. This study investigates human understanding and perceptions on wetlands and assessing environmental effects of human utilisation of the wetlands as a means of evaluating their sustainability. A mixed methods approach which entails both quantitative and qualitative methods was used to collect data from human and physical environments of two wetlands in Harare, Zimbabwe. Convenience and snowball sampling were used to select participants for questionnaires, interviews and focus groups. The study used two sets of similar questionnaires to collect data from 40 Borrowdale and 39 Belvedere wetland users and residents. Interviews were also administered to 10 Borrowdale and 12 Belvedere wetland users. Two focus group discussions were administered for Borrowdale and one was administered for Belvedere. Wetland delineation and land use mapping were done using a hand-held GPS. Sediment samples were collected from the utilised and unutilised parts of the two wetlands and were tested for sediment grain size and organic carbon content. Results showed an increase in urban wetland utilisation driven by complex economic, social and political issues. The majority of respondents showed that they were aware of the economic and socials benefits of wetland and environmental effects of different land uses on wetlands. Some respondents were sceptical about some of the environmental benefits of wetlands. Respondents were also aware of negative changes of wetland properties (soil, water, vegetation, birds and animals) due to different land uses on wetlands. Low percentages of organic carbon content in sediments from utilised parts of both wetlands reflected deterioration in soil fertility. There is poor dissemination of knowledge about wetlands to the general public, and existing wetland legislation is not effectively implemented. The study recommends that the government of Zimbabwe should: change its wetland management strategies, review the Environmental Management Act, enact a national wetland policy which involve decisions from all stakeholders, investigate institutions that facilitate wetland laws implementation, and change strategies used and people involved in educating and disseminating information about wetlands.