Explore the vast range of titles available.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is one of the most important medicinal herbs in Asia. Its pharmacological activity comes from ginsenosides, and its roots are produced commercially for traditional and Oriental medicine. Though 17 Panax species are available around the world, there was a need to develop cultivars adapted to different climatic conditions and resistant to various diseases while still producing high-quality, high-yield roots. Thus, 12 and 9 commercial P. ginseng cultivars have been registered in South Korea and China, respectively. Those varieties show superiority to local landraces. For example, Chunpoong is more highly resistant to rusty rot disease than the local Jakyungjong landrace and has a good root shape; it is highly cultivated to produce red ginseng. The Chinese cultivar Jilin Huangguo Renshen has higher ginsenoside content than its local landraces. This review provides information about P. ginseng cultivars and offers directions for future research, such as intra- and interspecific hybridization.

Ginseng is a traditional medicinal herb commonly consumed world-wide owing to its unique family of saponins called ginsenosides. The absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides mainly depend on an individual’s gastrointestinal bioconversion abilities. There is a need to improve ginseng processing to predictably increase the pharmacologically active of ginsenosides. Various types of ginseng, such as fresh, white, steamed, acid-processed, and fermented ginsengs, are available. The various ginseng processing methods produce a range ginsenoside compositions with diverse pharmacological properties. This review is intended to summarize the properties of the ginsenosides found in different Panax species as well as the different processing methods. The sugar moiety attached to the C–3, C–6, or C–20 deglycosylated to produce minor ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd→Rg3, F2, Rh2; Re, Rf→Rg1, Rg2, F1, Rh1. The malonyl-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were demalonylated into ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd by dehydration. Dehydration also produces minor ginsenosides such as Rg3→Rk1, Rg5, Rz1; Rh2→Rk2, Rh3; Rh1→Rh4, Rk3; Rg2→Rg6, F4; Rs3→Rs4, Rs5; Rf→Rg9, Rg10. Acetylation of several ginsenosides may generate acetylated ginsenosides Rg5, Rk1, Rh4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs5, Rs6, and Rs7. Acid processing methods produces Rh1→Rk3, Rh4; Rh2→Rk1, Rg5; Rg3→Rk2, Rh3; Re, Rf, Rg2→F1, Rh1, Rf2, Rf3, Rg6, F4, Rg9. Alkaline produces Rh16, Rh3, Rh1, F4, Rk1, ginsenoslaloside-I, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh1-60-acetate, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh19, zingibroside-R1 through hydrolysis, hydration addition reactions, and dehydration. Moreover, biological processing of ginseng generates the minor ginsenosides of Rg3, F2, Rh2, CK, Rh1, Mc, compound O, compound Y through hydrolysis reactions, and synthetic ginsenosides Rd12 and Ia are produced through glycosylation. This review with respect to the properties of particular ginsenosides could serve to increase the utilization of ginseng in agricultural products, food, dietary supplements, health supplements, and medicines, and may also spur future development of novel highly functional ginseng products through a combination of various processing methods.

Dendropanax morbifera Léveille is an oriental medicinal plant that is traditionally used in folk medicine and grows in a specific region of South Korea. We aimed to enhance the utilization of D. morbifera medicinal plants for synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). D. morbifera leaf extract acted as both a reducing and a stabilizing agent that rapidly synthesized Dendropanax AgNPs (D-AgNPs) and Dendropanax AuNPs (D-AuNPs). The D-AgNPs and D-AuNPs were characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, elemental mapping, field emission transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and dynamic light scattering. The characterizations revealed that the D-AgNPs and D-AuNPs were in polygon and hexagon shapes with average sizes of 100-150 nm and 10-20 nm, respectively. The important outcomes were the synthesis of AgNPs and AuNPs within 1 hour and 3 minutes, respectively, avoiding the subsequent processing for removal of any toxic components or for stabilizing the nanoparticles. Additionally, D-AgNPs and D-AuNPs were examined for cytotoxicity in a human keratinocyte cell line and in A549 human lung cancer cell line. The results indicated that D-AgNPs exhibited less cytotoxicity in the human keratinocyte cell line at 100 µg/mL after 48 hours. On the other hand, D-AgNPs showed potent cytotoxicity in the lung cancer cells at the same concentration after 48 hours, whereas D-AuNPs did not exhibit cytotoxicity in both cell lines at the same concentration. However, both D-AgNPs and D-AuNPs at 50 µg/mL enhanced the cytotoxicity of ginsenoside compound K at 25 µM after 48 hours of treatment compared with CK alone. We believe that this rapid green synthesis of D-AgNPs and D-AuNPs is a valuable addition to the applications of D. morbifera medicinal plant. D-AuNPs can be used as carriers for drug delivery and in cancer therapy due to their lack of normal cell cytotoxicity.

Ginsenoside Rh1 (G-Rh1), a possible bioactive substance isolated from the Korean Panax ginseng Meyer, has a wide range of pharmacological effects. In this study, we have investigated the anticancer efficacy of G-Rh1 via in silico and in vitro methodologies. This study mainly focuses on the two metastatic regulators, Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK1) and RhoA, along with other standard apoptosis regulators. The ROCK1 protein is a member of the active serine/threonine kinase family that is crucial for many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and death, as well as many cellular processes and muscle contraction. The abnormal activation of ROCK1 kinase causes several disorders, whereas numerous studies have also shown that RhoA is expressed highly in various cancers, including colon, lung, ovarian, gastric, and liver malignancies. Hence, inhibiting both ROCK1 and RhoA will be promising in preventing metastasis. Therefore, the molecular level interaction of G-Rh1 with the ROCK1 and RhoA active site residues from the preliminary screening clearly shows its inhibitory potential. Molecular dynamics simulation and principal component analysis give essential insights for comprehending the conformational changes that result from G-Rh1 binding to ROCK1 and RhoA. Further, MTT assay was employed to examine the potential cytotoxicity in vitro against human lung cancer cells (A549) and Raw 264.7 Murine macrophage cells. Thus, G-Rh1 showed significant cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) at 100 µg/mL. In addition, we observed an elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, perhaps promoting cancer cell toxicity. Additionally, G-Rh1 suppressed the mRNA expression of RhoA, ROCK1, MMP1, and MMP9 in cancer cell. Accordingly, G-Rh1 upregulated the p53, Bax, Caspase 3, caspase 9 while Bcl2 is downregulated intrinsic pathway. The findings from our study propose that the anticancer activity of G-Rh1 may be related to the induction of apoptosis by the RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway. As a result, this study evaluated the functional drug-like compound G-Rh1 from Panax ginseng in preventing and treating lung cancer adenocarcinoma via regulating metastasis and apoptosis.

There has been a growing interest in the design of environmentally affable and biocompatible nanoparticles among scientists to find novel and safe biomaterials. Meyer berries have unique phytochemical profile and exhibit beneficial pharmacological activities such as antihyperglycemic, antiobesity, antiaging, and antioxidant properties. A comprehensive study of the biologically active compounds in ginseng berry extract (GBE) and the ability of ginseng berry (GB) as novel material for the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (GBAuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (GBAgNPs) was conducted. In addition, the effects of GBAuNPs and GBAgNPs on skin cell lines for further potential biological applications are highlighted. GBAuNPs and GBAgNPs were synthesized using aqueous GBE as a reducing and capping agent. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized for their size, morphology, and crystallinity. The nanoparticles were evaluated for antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity activities and for morphological changes in human dermal fibroblast and murine melanoma skin cell lines. The phytochemicals contained in GBE effectively reduced and capped gold and silver ions to form GBAuNPs and GBAgNPs. The optimal synthesis conditions (ie, temperature and v/v % of GBE) and kinetics were investigated. Polysaccharides and phenolic compounds present in GBE were suggested to be responsible for stabilization and functionalization of nanoparticles. GBAuNPs and GBAgNPs showed increased scavenging activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radicals compared to GBE. GBAuNPs and GBAgNPs effectively inhibited mushroom tyrosinase, while GBAgNPs showed antibacterial activity against and . In addition, GBAuNPs were nontoxic to human dermal fibroblast and murine melanoma cell lines, and GBAgNPs showed cytotoxic effect on murine melanoma cell lines. The current results evidently suggest that GBAgNPs can act as potential agents for antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase, and antibacterial activities. In addition, GBAuNPs can be further developed into mediators in drug delivery and as antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase, and protective skin agents in cosmetic products. Consequently, the study showed the advantages of using nanotechnology and green chemistry to enhance the natural properties of GBs.

Pharmacologically active stem of the oriental herbal adaptogen, Siberian ginseng, was employed for the ecofriendly synthesis of Siberian ginseng silver nanoparticles (Sg-AgNPs) and Siberian ginseng gold nanoparticles (Sg-AuNPs). First, for metabolic characterization of the sample, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis (indicated the presence of eleutherosides A and E), total phenol content, and total reducing sugar were analyzed. Second, the water extract of the sample mediated the biological synthesis of both Sg-AgNPs and Sg-AuNPs that were crystalline face-centered cubical structures with a Z-average hydrodynamic diameter of 126 and 189 nm, respectively. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared analysis indicated that proteins and aromatic hydrocarbons play a key role in the formation and stabilization of Sg-AgNPs, whereas phenolic compounds accounted for the synthesis and stability of Sg-AuNPs. 3-(4,5-Dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay determined that Sg-AgNPs conferred strong cytotoxicity against MCF7 (human breast cancer cell line) and was only slightly toxic to HaCaT (human keratinocyte cell line) at 10 µg⋅mL(-1). However, Sg-AuNPs did not display cytotoxic effects against both of the cell lines. The disc diffusion assay indicated a dose-dependent increase in the zone of inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Bacillus anthracis (NCTC 10340), Vibrio parahaemolyticus (ATCC 33844), and Escherichia coli (BL21) treated with Sg-AgNPs, whereas Sg-AuNPs did not show inhibitory activity. In addition, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay demonstrated that both Sg-AgNPs and Sg-AuNPs possess strong antioxidant activity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report unraveling the potential of Eleutherococcus senticosus for silver and gold nanoparticle synthesis along with its biological applications, which in turn would promote widespread usage of the endemic Siberian ginseng.

Nanoscience is a multidisciplinary skill with elucidated nanoscale particles and their advantages in applications to various fields. Owing to their economical synthesis, biocompatible nature, and widespread biomedical and environmental applications, the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using medicinal plants has become a potential research area in biomedical research and functional food formulations. Gynostemma pentaphyllum (GP) has been extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine to cure several diseases, including diabetes mellitus (DM). This is the first study in which we examined the efficacy of G. pentaphyllum gold nanoparticles (GP-AuNPs) against obesity and related inflammation. GP extract was used as a capping agent to reduce Au2+ to Au0 to form stable gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were characterized by using UV–VIS spectroscopy, and TEM images were used to analyze morphology. In contrast, the existence of the functional group was measured using FTIR, and size and shape were examined using XRD analysis. In vitro analysis on GP-AuNPs was nontoxic to RAW 264.7 cells and 3T3-L1 cells up to a specific concentration. It significantly decreased lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 obese and reduced NO production in Raw 264.7 macrophage cells. The significant adipogenic genes PPARγ and CEPBα and a major pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α expression were quantified using RT-PCR. The GP-AuNPs decreased the face of these genes remarkably, revealing the antiadipogenic and anti-inflammatory activity of our synthesized GP-AuNPs. This study represents thorough research on the antiobesity effect of Gynostemma pentaphyllum gold nanoparticles synthesized using a green approach and the efficacy instead of related inflammatory responses.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-the byproduct of regular cell activity formed by various cellular components—play a significant role in pathological and physiological conditions. Alternatively, antioxidants are compounds that reduce or scavenge reactive species in cells. An asymmetry between the antioxidant defense system and ROS from intracellular and extracellular sources cause chronic diseases such as cancer, inflammation, tumorigenesis, cardiovascular and neurogenerative diseases. However, Panax ginseng and its secondary metabolites (known as ginsenosides, phenolic compounds, peptides, acid polysaccharides, polyacetylene, and alkaloids) are well-recognized as antioxidants in many in vitro and in vivo experiments which show beneficial activity in regulating ROS in these diseases. There are extensive evidences that P. ginseng can destroy cancer cells specifically by increasing oxidative stress through ROS generation without significantly harming normal cells. Additionally, numerous studies have examined the antioxidant activity of ginseng and its derivatives on ROS-mediated signaling pathways which are discussed herein. This review summarizes the potential antioxidant activity of P. ginseng in several chronic diseases, and gives updated research evidence with related mechanisms and the future possibilities of nano-formulated compounds of P. ginseng and other polyphenols.

Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is widely recognized for its aromatic flavor and established pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. While these biological activities underpin its therapeutic potential, recent advances have expanded the application of vanillin into the field of biomaterials. In particular, vanillin’s unique chemical structure enables its use as a multifunctional building block for the development of innovative hydrogels with dynamic covalent bonding, injectability, and self-healing capabilities. Vanillin-based hydrogels have demonstrated promising applications in wound healing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and antimicrobial platforms, combining structural support with intrinsic bioactivity. These hydrogels benefit from vanillin’s biocompatibility and functional versatility, enhancing mechanical properties and therapeutic efficacy. This review provides an overview of vanillin’s pharmacological effects, with a primary focus on the synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of vanillin-derived hydrogels. By highlighting recent material innovations and their translational potential, we aim to position vanillin as a valuable natural compound bridging bioactivity and biomaterial science for future clinical and therapeutic advancements.

The use of in vitro tissue culture for herbal medicines has been recognized as a valuable source of botanical secondary metabolites. The tissue culture of ginseng species is used in the production of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, polysaccharides, and especially ginsenosides, which are utilized in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. This review paper focuses on the in vitro culture of Panax ginseng and accumulation of ginsenosides. In vitro culture has been applied to study organogenesis and biomass culture, and is involved in direct organogenesis for rooting and shooting from explants and in indirect morphogenesis for somatic embryogenesis via the callus, which is a mass of disorganized cells. Biomass production was conducted with different types of tissue cultures, such as adventitious roots, cell suspension, and hairy roots, and subsequently on a large scale in a bioreactor. This review provides the cumulative knowledge of biotechnological methods to increase the ginsenoside resources of P. ginseng. In addition, ginsenosides are summarized at enhanced levels of activity and content with elicitor treatment, together with perspectives of new breeding tools which can be developed in P. ginseng in the future.