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Adaptation to the context in which we experience pain requires cognitive flexibility (CF) and affective flexibility (AF). Deficits in both flexibility types may be precursors of more intense and prolonged pain. This study aimed to examine the relation between CF and AF, and the experience of experimentally induced pain. Furthermore, correlations between behavioral and self-report measures of flexibility were explored. CF and AF were assessed with task-switching paradigms, using neutral (numbers ranging from 1 to 9, excluding 5) or affective stimuli (positive and negative pictures), respectively. Pain sensitivity measures, such as pain threshold (°C), pain tolerance (°C), and retrospective pain experience ratings (Visual Analog Scale) were assessed for an experimentally induced heat pain stimulus. Self-reported CF was measured with a questionnaire. Results demonstrated no associations between the flexibility constructs and any of the pain outcome measures. Correlations between the behavioral and self-report measures of CF were absent or weak at best. Current results are discussed against the background of methodological considerations and prior empirical research findings, suggesting the contribution of AF in especially the recovery from pain.

Psychological factors have been shown to influence the process of wound healing. This study examined the effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on the speed of wound healing. The local production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors was studied as potential underlying mechanism. Forty-nine adults were randomly allocated to a waiting-list control group (n = 26) or an 8-week MBSR group (n = 23). Pre- and post-intervention/waiting period assessment for both groups consisted of questionnaires. Standardized skin wounds were induced on the forearm using a suction blister method. Primary outcomes were skin permeability and reduction in wound size monitored once a day at day 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10 after injury. Secondary outcomes were cytokines and growth factors and were measured in wound exudates obtained at 3, 6, and 22 h after wounding. Although there was no overall condition effect on skin permeability or wound size, post hoc analyses indicated that larger increases in mindfulness were related to greater reductions in skin permeability 3 and 4 days after wound induction. In addition, MBSR was associated with lower levels of interleukin (IL)-8 and placental growth factor in the wound fluid 22 h after wound induction. These outcomes suggest that increasing mindfulness by MBSR might have beneficial effects on early stages of wound healing.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between two aspects of emotional flexibility (EF, i.e. flexible emotional responsiveness and affective flexibility) and tolerance for, and recovery from, experimentally-induced pain. Fifty-two adults completed a flexible emotional responsiveness task in which emotional responses on multiple dimensions were registered while watching positive and negative pictures. Affective flexibility was measured using a switching task with positive and negative pictures. Pain tolerance was assessed as the time participants endured an ischemic pain task and total time until recovery in terms of pain intensity and pain unpleasantness was registered. Flexible emotional responsiveness—reflected in divergent corrugator responses to positive and negative stimuli—was associated with faster recovery from pain unpleasantness. Affective flexibility was associated with recovery in terms of pain intensity, with faster switches from neutral towards affective aspects of positive stimuli being predictive of faster recovery. Results did not provide evidence for an association between EF and pain tolerance. The findings suggest that EF may protect against pain persistence.