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Numerous studies have demonstrated that executive functions benefit from high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). However, the immediate effects of HIIT and MICT on these functions in older adults have not been compared. This study aimed to examine the acute impact of HIIT and MICT on executive function components in this demographic. Twenty-five healthy community-dwelling older adults (15 females; average age 67.1 ± 4.5 years) participated. The study involved three sessions: an initial session with cognitive assessments (Stroop Task: Naming, Inhibition, and Switching) and a maximal continuous graded exercise test, followed by two sessions involving HIIT (15s at 100% peak power output, 15s rest, 2 × 20 min) or MICT (34 min at 60% peak power output) training protocols in random order. Cognitive tests were administered immediately after and 45 min post-training. The results showed a significant difference in Switching reaction times between MICT and HIIT, with HIIT showing a greater reduction in Switching times after 45 min ( p  = 0.019). In conclusion, our study indicates that HIIT’s beneficial effects on executive functions demonstrated a larger effect size than those of MICT. This suggests that brief, high-intensity exercise could be more effective in enhancing executive functions among older adults.

Purpose: This one-group pretest–posttest, designed within a subject study, looks to compare the effects of an outdoor nature walk (ONW) to those of a virtual nature walk (VRW) on memory and cognitive function. Implications are discussed for education as well as for the world of virtual reality. Methods: Sixty-four healthy university students were asked to complete an ONW and a VRW, which was created using 3D video of the same nature trail used for the ONW. The VRW condition involved a five-minute walk on a treadmill, while wearing a virtual reality mask (Oculus, San Francisco, USA) that projected a previously recorded three-dimensional capture of the same nature walk they experienced outdoors. Both experimental conditions lasted approximately 5 min and were counterbalanced between participants. A Digit Span Test (Digit) for working memory and a Trail Test (TMT) for executive function were administered to all study participants, immediately before and after each type of walk. Results: For executive function testing (Trail Making Test), our results demonstrate that both the ONW and VRW condition improved the TMT time, when compared to a baseline (ONW 37.06 ± 1.31 s vs. 31.75 ± 1.07 s, p < 0.01 and VRW 36.19 ± 1.18 s vs. 30.69 ± 1.11 s, p < 0.01). There was no significant difference between the ONW and VRW groups. Similarly, for the Digit memory task, both conditions improved compared to the baseline (ONW 54.30 ± 3.01 vs. 68.4 ± 2.66, p < 0.01 and VRW 58.1 ± 3.10 vs. 67.4 ± 2.72, p < 0.01). There was a difference at the baseline between the ONW and VRW conditions (54.3 ± 3.01 vs. 58.1 ± 3.10, p < 0.01), but this baseline difference in memory performance was no longer significant post exercise, between groups at follow-up (68.4 ± 2.66 vs. 67.4 ± 2.72, p < 0.08). Conclusions: Our results suggest that both a virtual reality protocol and a nature walk can have positive outcomes on memory and executive function in younger adults.

Advancing age is associated with declines in cognitive function. Although physical activity is thought to protect against this decline, it is unclear how a short-term uptake in daily steps or a decline in day-to-day step variability may contribute to cognition among older adults. We tested associations between changes in step counts, day-to-day step variability and executive cognitive functions among older adults taking part in a physical activity intervention. Thirty-seven older adults (33 females; 71.4 ± 6.3 years) completed a 10-week personalized physical activity intervention. Participants wore a Fitbit to measure daily step counts throughout the study. They also completed a computerized Stroop task before and after the intervention. Average step counts and step count variability via average-real-variability (ARV) were determined. Compared to pre-intervention, step counts increased ( p  < 0.001) and step variability decreased post-intervention ( p  = 0.04). Models describing the changes in step counts and ARV over the 10-weeks were cubic (both, p  < 0.04). Reaction times during the simple ( p  = 0.002) and switching ( p  = 0.04) conditions were faster post-intervention. Change in step variability was positively associated with the change in reaction time for the switching condition (β = 0.029, p  = 0.002). On average, a reduction in day-to-day step variability was associated with improvements in cognitive flexibility.

To improve cognitive function, moving the body is strongly recommended; however, evidence regarding the proper training modality is still lacking. The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the effects of high intensity interval training (HIIT) compared to moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE), representing the same total training load, on improving cognitive function in healthy adults. It was hypothesized that after 6 weeks (3 days/week) of stationary bike training, HIIT would improve executive functions more than MICE. Twenty-five participants exercised three times a week for 6 weeks after randomization to the HIIT or MICE training groups. Target intensity was 60% of peak power output (PPO) in the MICE group and 100% PPO in the HIIT group. After training, PPO significantly increased in both the HIIT and MICE groups (9% and 15%, p < 0.01). HIIT was mainly associated with a greater improvement in overall reaction time in the executive components of the computerized Stroop task (980.43 ± 135.27 ms vs. 860.04 ± 75.63 ms, p < 0.01) and the trail making test (42.35 ± 14.86 s vs. 30.35 ± 4.13 s, p < 0.01). T exercise protocol was clearly an important factor in improving executive functions in young adults.

Microgravity has been shown to be a significant stressor on the cardiovascular system and the brain due to the redistribution of fluids that occurs in the absence of gravitational force, but there is scarce literature surrounding the effects of microgravity on cerebral hemodynamics and cognition. Understanding the early effects that simulated gravity has on cognitive function is essential for developing proper physical and cognitive countermeasures to assure safe and effective cognitive/decisions making while astronauts prepare for the initial launch or when they arrive in a microgravity environment. Therefore, this study aims to determine how an acute simulation of microgravity would alter cerebral oxygenation and executive functions. Sixty-five young healthy participants (22 ± 6 years, 21 females) completed a thirty (30) minute horizontal (0 0 tilt) followed by a 90-min − 6° head-down-tilt (HDT) protocol. Cerebral oxygenation in the prefrontal cortex was monitored throughout the testing session using near-infrared spectroscopy. Cognition was also measured using a computerized Stroop Task. Our results demonstrate that cerebral oxygenation was higher during HDT compared to the horizontal supine position (9.11 ± 1.3 vs. 7.51 ± 1.8, p = 0.02). For the cognitive results, the non-executive performance of the Stroop task remained stable during HDT (652.46 ± 19.3 vs. 632.49 ± 14.5, p = 0.09). However, reaction time during the executive task performance was improved after the HDT (1058 ± 195–950 ± 158 ms, p < 0.01). Our results suggest that an acute bout of simulated microgravity can enhance executive functioning.

Introduction: Regular aerobic exercise is associated with better executive function in older adults. It is unclear if high-intensity-interval-training (HIIT) elicits moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) or resistance training (RT). We hypothesized that HIIT would augment executive function more than MICT and RT. Methods: Sixty-nine older adults (age: 68 ± 7 years) performed six weeks (three days/week) of HIIT (2 × 20 min bouts alternating between 15 s intervals at 100% of peak power output (PPO) and passive recovery (0% PPO); n = 24), MICT (34 min at 60% PPO; n = 19), or whole-body RT (eight exercise superior improvements in executive function of older adults than moderate-intensity-continuous-training, 2 × 10 repetitions; n = 26). Cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., V˙O2max) and executive function were assessed before and after each intervention via a progressive maximal cycle ergometer protocol and the Stroop Task, respectively. Results: The V˙O2max findings revealed a significant group by time interaction (p = 0.001) in which all groups improved following training, but HIIT and MICT improved more than RT. From pre- to post-training, no interaction in the naming condition of the Stroop Task was observed (p > 0.10). However, interaction from pre- to post-training by group was observed, and only the HIIT group exhibited a faster reaction time (from 1250 ± 50 to 1100 ± 50 ms; p < 0.001) in switching (cognitive flexibility). Conclusion: Despite similar improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, HIIT, but not MICT nor RT, enhanced cognitive flexibility in older adults. Exercise programs should consider using HIIT protocols in an effort to combat cognitive decline in older adults.

Purpose To assess the relationship between exercise intensity, cerebral HbO 2 and cognitive performance (Executive and non-Executive) in young adults. Methods We measured reaction time (RT) and accuracy, during a computerized Stroop task, in 19 young adults (7 males and 12 females). Their mean ± SD age, height, body mass and body mass index (BMI) were 24 ± 4 years, 1.67 ± 0.07 m, 72 ± 14 kg and 25 ± 3 kg m −2 , respectively. Each subject performed the Stroop task at rest and during cycling at exercise of low intensity [40 % of peak power output (PPO)], moderate intensity (60 % of PPO) and high intensity (85 % of PPO). Cerebral oxygenation was monitored during the resting and exercise conditions over the prefrontal cortex (PFC) using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Results High-intensity exercise slowed RT in both the Naming ( p  = 0.04) and the Executive condition ( p  = 0.04). The analysis also revealed that high-intensity exercise was associated with a decreased accuracy when compared to low-intensity exercise ( p  = 0.021). Neuroimaging results confirm a decrease of cerebral oxygenation during high-intensity exercise in comparison to low- ( p  = 0.004) and moderate-intensity exercise ( p  = 0.003). Correlations revealed that a lower cerebral HbO 2 in the prefrontal cortex was associated with slower RT in the Executive condition only ( p  = 0.04, g  = −0.72). Conclusion Results of the present study suggest that low to moderate exercise intensity does not alter Executive functioning, but that exercise impairs cognitive functions (Executive and non-Executive) when the physical workload becomes heavy. The cerebral HbO 2 correlation suggests that a lower availability of HbO 2 was associated with slower RT in the Executive condition only.

Among same-age adolescents, those who enter puberty relatively later and those who are relatively younger (e.g., born later in the year) might be at greater risk of physical activity discontinuation. This study aimed to (1) describe gender-specific discontinuation, re-engagement, and uptake rates in various types of physical activities from the age of 11 to 17 years, and (2) assess puberty timing and relative age as predictors of discontinuation from organized, unorganized, individual, and group-based physical activities. Longitudinal data from 781 (56% girls, age 10–13 years at study baseline) Canadian participants who self-reported puberty status, birthdate, and involvement in 36 physical activities every four months from 2011 to 2018 was analyzed. The incidence of discontinuation, re-engagement, and uptake in organized/unorganized and individual/group activities from grade 6 until grade 12 was described and Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate associations of puberty timing and relative age with organized/unorganized and individual/group activity discontinuation. Results demonstrate that individual and unorganized activities are maintained longer than group-based and organized activities. Girls who started puberty earlier were more likely to discontinue organized activities than girls with average-puberty timing [Hazard ratio (HR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) 1.68 (1.05–2.69)]. Compared to boys born in the 4th quarter of the year, boys born in the 2nd quarter of the year were less likely to discontinue organized [HR (95% CI) 0.41 (0.23–0.74)], unorganized [HR (95% CI) 0.33 (0.16–0.70)], group [HR (95% CI) 0.58 (0.34–0.98)], and individual activities[HR (95% CI) 0.46 (0.23–0.91)], and boys born in the 3rd quarter were less likely to discontinue unorganized activities[HR (95% CI) 0.41 (0.19–0.88)]. This study illustrates the patterns of physical activity participation throughout adolescence. However, the generalizability of findings may be limited due to participant representation.

Background Although adolescent physical activity (PA) tracks into adulthood, it is unclear if the context of PA practiced during adolescence predicts adult PA. We previously identified five adolescent PA profiles and aimed to assess associations between these profiles and levels of PA in emerging adulthood. Methods Using data from the first 8 years of the MATCH study, when participants were 11 to 18 years, we identified five adolescent PA profiles: “non-participants” (9% of the sample), “dropouts” (30%), “active in unorganized PA” (19%), “active in organized PA” (27%), and “active through a variety of PA” (15%). The same participants reported their PA level (IPAQ) 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5 years later when they were emerging adults (20, 21, 22, and 23 years). The adolescent PA profiles were included in a mixed-distribution two parts model as predictors of i) the probability of reporting any PA during emerging adulthood, and ii) the PA level of emerging adults reporting PA. Results Being categorized as “non-participant” or “dropout” during adolescence was associated with similar likelihoods of reporting PA and PA level during emerging adulthood. In contrast with “non-participants”, those in the “active-unorganized” (OR, 95% CI: 2.8, 2.1–3.8), “active-organized” (2.4, 1.7–3.2), and “active-variety” (3.7, 3.3–5.1) were considerably more likely to report any PA during emerging adulthood. Among emerging adults who reported some PA, those with an adolescent profile of “active-unorganized”, “active-organized” and “active-variety” had higher PA levels than “non-participants” (all p  < 0.01). Conclusion Profiles of PA participation during adolescence represent strong predictors of PA in emerging adulthood. Promoting participation in various types of PA during adolescence is key to preventing low PA among emerging adults.