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Purpose In the mesic savannas of West Africa, areas around villages of relatively tall and dense forest vegetation are often found. These ‘forest islands’ are presumably the direct outcome of human activity. To better understand these patches with relatively luxuriant vegetation, our study focused on how they influence soil aggregate stability- a key indicator of soil resilience to degradation through erosion. We compared the proportion of stable soil aggregates of the forest islands with nearby croplands and natural savanna vegetation across a precipitation transect in West Africa for which mean annual precipitation at the study sites ranges from 0.80 to 1.27 m a −1 . Methods Soil samples were taken from 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm depths and stability of soil aggregate groups with diameters: > 500 μm, 500–250 μm and 250–53 μm (viz. “macroaggregates”, “mesoaggregates” and “microaggregates” respectively) determined using the wet sieving method. Results The results showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher proportion of stable soil meso- and macro-aggregates in forest islands and natural savanna than in agricultural soils. Although there was no effect of land-use type on microaggregate stability, there was a strong tendency for the stable microaggregates across all land use types to increase with increasing precipitation. Soil organic carbon and iron oxides contents were the most important factors influencing meso and macro-aggregate stability in the West African ecosystems. Conclusion We conclude that formation of stable soil microaggregates in the West African ecosystems was climate or precipitation driven whereas the more labile and larger-size groups of meso-and macro- aggregates was land-use driven. The study provides first insights in soil quality processes in a poorly studied but unique phenomenon of man-made forest islands in West Africa.

A decline in rainfall as a source of agricultural water has affected and will continue to affect sustainable crop production globally including in Hungary. Conservation of the greatest water reservoir is important for the sustainable development of agriculture in Hungary. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the different tillage methods on soil moisture content, grain yield, and root weight of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) under rainfed conditions. A field study was conducted at the Józsefmajor Experimental and Training Farm (JM) of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences near Hatvan. The experiment consisted of six tillage treatments: disking (D, 16 cm), shallow cultivation (SC, 20 cm), no-till (NT), deep cultivation (DC, 25 cm), loosening (L, 45 cm), and plowing (P, 30 cm). Soil moisture content (SMC) was measured monthly, and grain yield and root weight were measured at the end of the cropping period. Our results showed no significant difference in SMC between conservation and conventional tillage methods in 2018. However, in 2021, greater SMC was significantly conserved under NT compared to P. Regarding the sampling date, a significant increase in moisture with time was observed. A significantly lower SMC was observed on 3 June 2019 between L and D. while on the 9 September 2020, SMC significantly differed between P and all the other treatments (D, SC, NT, DC, and L). Interestingly in 2018, SMC was significantly lower at 10–20 cm depth between L and D. Notably the effect of depth on SMC was observed as moisture significantly increased with increasing depth in all tillage treatments. Root weight was greatest at DC (1.54 t ha−1) in 2018 and under L (3.89 t ha−1) in 2021. Similarly, wheat grain yield was greatest at DC (2.48 t ha−1) in 2018, while sunflower yield in 2021 was greatest at L (3.86 t ha−1). It is comprehensible that conservation tillage methods such as L and NT can increase SMC and grain yield.

Africa, specifically Nigeria, has witnessed a dramatic increase in population over the last century, prompting efforts to ensure sustainable food production and quality. Concerns for soil sustainability and food security have led to the exploration of cost-effective methods, such as biochar, to enhance soil quality. Researchers in Nigeria and Africa as a whole have investigated biochar’s potential to improve soil fertility and crop performance across various agroecological zones. This paper aims to review recent biochar research priorities on soil fertility and crop performance with an emphasis on various sole biochar applications and combinations with fertilizers to determine the research gaps that need to be developed more in biochar research in Nigeria. From the papers reviewed, sole biochar applications and biochar + macronutrients and biochar + manure combinations were studied more dominantly, while biochar + micronutrients research projects were scanty despite their low content in the semi-arid soils of Nigeria. The studies were spread across the country with the majority taking place in derived savanna and humid forest, while Sudan savanna and Sahel savanna received less research attention despite being characterized by a low-fertile soil and vast area of land. Research involving BC in the context of Sahel savanna (SLS) and Sudan savanna (SS) soils is strongly encouraged in Nigeria. This research should encompass a wide range of investigations, including sole BC applications and combinations of BC with macronutrients, micronutrients, and manure, as well as exploring its potential as a slow-release fertilizer. Incorporating exclusive biochar in substantial amounts appears economically unfeasible within the context of local biochar production. However, it can be utilized in the synthesis of slow-release fertilizers, requiring smaller quantities and potentially offering cost-effectiveness. This approach enhances soil condition and crop productivity. Challenges are faced due to less commercial production as a result of inadequate power and structural facilities. Exploring the modification of local biochar for slow-release fertilizers through future research offers potential profitability.

Borno State situated in Northeastern Nigeria, has an arid agroecosystem that is defined by severe climatic problems such as droughts, desertification and irregular rainfall and poor soil fertility. The burning of crop residues results into depletion of soil organic carbon and essential plant nutrients. A sustainable approach is producing biochar from locally available agricultural wastes. This review presents locally available agricultural wastes as sustainable feedstock for biochar production and their potential to improve soil health in the arid and semi-arid region of Borno State. To achieve this, related articles were sourced from Google Search Engine (possible criteria to obtain local articles for Borno State), Google Scholar, Scopus with key words like “Borno, arid and semi-arid, biochar, agricultural waste” and related articles were selected from the search results. Notable available feedstocks obtained from the result include groundnut shells, sorghum stalks, rice husks, maize cobs, and an invasive plant specie known as ‘ Prosopis juliflora’ . Based on conceptual framework, utilizing reports from other arid regions, biochar from these feedstocks positively improved soil conditions of the arid regions and outperformed direct organic waste utilization for long-term plant nutrition benefits. For example, in an arid environment, sorghum waste and wheat straw biochar increased winter wheat yield and rice grain by 31 and 49% respectively. Implementation of biochar technology as part of the post-conflict plans, can benefit farmers when adopted as it accomplishes the objective of soil restoration through waste-to-value transformation. Although, the limitation of this study lies in the absence of empirical evidence due to non-availability of data specific to Borno State.However, successful implementation of this sustainable arid soil management practice in Borno State depends on research alongside localized production systems together with policy support to overcome economic obstacles like production expenses and technical limitations.

Two field experiments were conducted at Ellembelle and Jomoro districts in the Western region of Ghana where rubber cultivation is a predominant farming activity. The objective of the study was to assess the effect of rubber and plantain intercropping systems on selected soil properties. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications. The treatments were the sole crop rubber (R), sole crop plantain (P) and three intercrop systems comprising an additive series of plantain: one row of plantain to one row of rubber (PR), two rows of plantain to one row of rubber (PPR) and three rows of plantain to one row of rubber (PPPR). Generally, agroforestry systems improved the soil hydraulic properties considerably, with the highest cumulative infiltration rates of 5.16 and 8.68 cm/min observed under the PPPR systems at the Ellembelle and Jomoro sites, respectively. Microbial biomass C (Cmic), N (Nmic) and P (Pmic) was significantly improved (P < 0.05) under the agroforestry than the monocrop systems. The Cmic, Nmic and Pmic values were highest under the PPPR system at both Ellembelle (Cmic, = 139.9 mg/kg; Nmic = 36.26 mg/kg and Pmic = 87.6 mg/kg) and Jomoro (Cmic = 78.7 mg/kg; Nmic = 80.3 mg/kg and Pmic = 3.45 mg/kg) sites.

Salt stress has been a major problem in the soils of the world. Semi-arid and arid soils are the most affected and bring about adverse crop productivity and yield especially in susceptible species. Salinity is usually denoted with electrical conductivity (EC) equal to or greater than 4 deci Siemens per meter (dS/m). With expanding areas affected by salinity, especially with increasing sea water level and incursion of land, rise in salty water table is eminent as consequences of climate change. Sustainable remediation of soil salinity is becoming a major concern, especially in the field of agriculture and climate change mitigation. Remediation of saline soil with application of organic amendments has shown positive results with the added advantage of carbon build up in the soil. Recently with the focus on biochar as one of the recent soil conditioners and amendment, many researchers have tried to find out its remediating capacity on soil salinity. This article will focus on how biochar affects soil salinity with much emphasis on cation exchange capacity (CEC) and anion exchange capacity (AEC). Results from researchers showed that biochar remediates soil salinity due to its inherent characteristics like high CEC and possession of AEC that deprives both cations and anions that form salt in the soil. This positively favour the thrival of crops under salt stress by boosting K + availability, high salt sorption capacity, increased plant water intake, accelerated transpiration, lowered soil EC, increased soil accessible nutrients, increased soil moisture saving, optimizes the water-salt balance of the soil during saline irrigation, extended life span of plant which all favour crop performance. Future studies should explore synergistic effects of combining biochar with other soil management practices like drainage systems to enhance salinity mitigation and crop performance. Additionally, nano-biochar represents a promising direction in biochar development, with more possible potential for salinity amelioration due to higher surface area compared to biochar. While biochar has the potential to mitigate this issue, research on its application in African contexts is limited. More localized studies are needed to develop effective biochar solutions tailored to specific African environments and agricultural practices. Graphical abstract Article highlights Biochar is much promising for ameliorating soil salinity. Biochar had CEC and AEC, reducing the impact of soil salinity. Localized studies are essential to understand biochar’s effectiveness in ameliorating soil salinity, given the high variability of soil conditions.

Accurate forest biomass estimation is essential for quantifying carbon stocks, guiding sustainable forest management, and informing climate change mitigation strategies. Kenya’s forests are diverse, ranging from Afromontane and mangrove ecosystems to dryland woodlands and plantations, each presenting unique challenges for biomass measurement. This review synthesizes literature on field-based, remote sensing, and machine learning approaches applied in Kenya, highlighting their effectiveness, limitations, and integration potential. A systematic search across multiple databases identified peer-reviewed studies published in the last decade, screened against defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The main findings are (1) Field-based techniques (e.g., allometric equations, quadrat sampling) provide reliable and site-specific estimates but are labor-intensive and limited in scalability. (2) Remote sensing methods (LiDAR, UAVs, multispectral and radar imagery) enable large-scale and repeat assessments, though they require extensive calibration and investment. (3) Machine learning and hybrid approaches enhance prediction accuracy by integrating multi-source data, but their success depends on data availability and methodological harmonization. This review identifies opportunities for integrating field and remote sensing data with machine learning to strengthen biomass monitoring. Establishing a national biomass inventory, supported by robust policy frameworks, is critical to align Kenya’s forest management with global climate and biodiversity goals.

A three-year field trial was conducted between 2014 and 2017 in the Ellembelle and Jomoro districts of the Western region of Ghana where rubber production is common to determine the optimum population density of plantain when grown in combination with immature rubber tree crops. The trials were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with 3 replications. The treatments were sole rubber, sole plantain, and three intercrops of one row of plantain in between two rows of rubber, two rows of plantain in between two rows of rubber, and three rows of plantain in between two rows of rubber. The rubber clone used was GT1 while the variety of plantain used was false horn. The results showed that population density of plantain had significant effect on the growth of the associated rubber. Growing plantain at closer spacing of 1.5 m under the high-density plantain treatment significantly increased plantain yield compared to the other cropping systems. There was a significant positive relationship between population density of plantain and the rubber tree growth and development. The optimum population density of plantain when intercropped with rubber was 1,666/ha. The study showed intercropping was advantageous over sole cropping for both crops.

The conservation tillage method is a more holistic method introduced in Hungary two decades ago. Its environmental benefits in agriculture were widely studied and documented. The impact of conservation tillage on soil compaction and penetration resistance remains debated, necessitating further research to clarify its long-term effects in different soil types and cropping systems. The present study evaluates the impact on soil penetration resistance following 16 years of implementation of six distinct tillage practices. The study was conducted at Józsefmajor Experimental and Training Farm (JM) of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences near Hatvan. The study employed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to evaluate six distinct tillage methods. These methods encompassed disking (D) at 12–14 cm depth, shallow cultivation (SC) at 18–20 cm depth, no-tilling (NT), deep cultivation (DC) at 22–25 cm depth, loosening (L) at 40–45 cm depth, and plowing (P) at 28–30 cm depth. In this study, soil compaction was assessed by measuring soil penetration resistance (SPR) at different depths (0–50 cm) and periods of the cropping year. Disking and NT significantly increased SPR between 10 and 20 cm, likely due to increased soil densification and reduced porosity in the absence of deep soil disturbance. While under sunflower cropping season significantly higher SPR was measured. In March 2021, the SPR at D and NT differed significantly from other measurement dates (September, October, November, and April). Regarding the difference between the depths, SPR increased with increasing depths in all treatment plots. The study findings revealed that NT and D tillage methods significantly increased soil penetration resistance in both cropping years, whereas L and P reduced SPR and enhanced the soil moisture storage potential of the soil particularly for the sunflower cropping period. The significance of the Spearman correlations observed suggested that SPR could be a valuable indicator of root growth potential under certain tillage conditions. Based on our results, we recommend the adoption of occasional deep soil loosening for reduced tillage systems (SC, D, DC, and NT) for both wheat and sunflower. This will create a compact-free zone for greater crop root proliferation, nutrient access, and SMC storage.

Although numerous studies have reported an increased yield upon adoption to improved agricultural practices (IAPs), yet smallholder farmers face limited access to this information. The objective of this study was to assess smallholder farmers' awareness and adoption of IAPs. A total of 206 active and registered households were surveyed by mixed sampling in the Mbeya region. The data was collected from smallholder farmers using the ODK collect tool through a well-structured questionnaire. The probit model and One-way ANOVA test were performed to identify predictor variables. Results pointed out that farming period, top dressing, flood exposure, fallowing time, soil information on IAPs, and knowledge about soil type showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) on the farmers’ adoption of IAPs. Moreover, 81% and 72% of the smallholder farmers surveyed showed a lack of awareness regarding the specific soil type and general soil information related to their farmland, respectively. Only 24% of farmers relied on agricultural experts (extension service officers) to get information on IAPs whereas 65% of the respondents were unfamiliar with neither Agricultural Extension Officers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), nor Researchers from Higher Learning Institution (RHLI). About 59% of the female-headed households were found to have a better soil information on IAPs than men at a 5% significant level. Age and education level do not affect farmers’ adoption of IAPs with 72.5% of respondents motivated to adopt various IAPs in the surveyed area. This study highlights the need to highly consider agricultural extension officers as important agents in linking smallholder farmers with NGOs programs, agricultural research findings, and government programs to improve their livelihood. Graphical abstract Highlights 206 Smallholder farmers were sampled from five locations in the Mbeya region of Tanzania. Males are more involved in agriculture while female-headed households have better soil information on IAPs. The adoption of improved agricultural practices (IAPs) by smallholder farmers is affected by a lack of knowledge on IAPs and soil type. Agricultural experts (extension service officers) are the main source of information on IAPs for smallholder farmers.