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Large biases in climate model simulations of cloud radiative properties over the Southern Ocean cause large errors in modeled sea surface temperatures, atmospheric circulation, and climate sensitivity. Here, we combine cloud-resolving model simulations with estimates of the concentration of ice-nucleating particles in this region to show that our simulated Southern Ocean clouds reflect far more radiation than predicted by global models, in agreement with satellite observations. Specifically, we show that the clouds that are most sensitive to the concentration of ice-nucleating particles are low-level mixed-phase clouds in the cold sectors of extratropical cyclones, which have previously been identified as a main contributor to the Southern Ocean radiation bias. The very low ice-nucleating particle concentrations that prevail over the Southern Ocean strongly suppress cloud droplet freezing, reduce precipitation, and enhance cloud reflectivity. The results help explain why a strong radiation bias occurs mainly in this remote region away from major sources of ice-nucleating particles. The results present a substantial challenge to climate models to be able to simulate realistic ice-nucleating particle concentrations and their effects under specific meteorological conditions.

The formation of ice in clouds is an important processes in mixed-phase and ice-phase clouds. Yet, the representation of ice formation in numerical models is highly uncertain. In the last decade, several new parameterizations for heterogeneous freezing have been proposed. However, it is currently unclear what the effect of choosing one parameterization over another is in the context of numerical weather prediction. We conducted high-resolution simulations (Δx=250 m) of moderately deep convective clouds (cloud top ∼-18 ∘C) over the southwestern United Kingdom using several formulations of ice formation and compared the resulting changes in cloud field properties to the spread of an initial condition ensemble for the same case. The strongest impact of altering the ice formation representation is found in the hydrometeor number concentration and mass mixing ratio profiles. While changes in accumulated precipitation are around 10 %, high precipitation rates (95th percentile) vary by 20 %. Using different ice formation representations changes the outgoing short-wave radiation by about 2.9 W m−2 averaged over daylight hours. The choice of a particular representation for ice formation always has a smaller impact then omitting heterogeneous ice formation completely. Excluding the representation of the Hallett–Mossop process or altering the heterogeneous freezing parameterization has an impact of similar magnitude on most cloud macro- and microphysical variables with the exception of the frozen hydrometeor mass mixing ratios and number concentrations. A comparison to the spread of cloud properties in a 10-member high-resolution initial condition ensemble shows that the sensitivity of hydrometeor profiles to the formulation of ice formation processes is larger than sensitivity to initial conditions. In particular, excluding the Hallett–Mossop representation results in profiles clearly different from any in the ensemble. In contrast, the ensemble spread clearly exceeds the changes introduced by using different ice formation representations in accumulated precipitation, precipitation rates, condensed water path, cloud fraction, and outgoing radiation fluxes.

Convective cloud systems in the maritime tropics play a critical role in global climate, but accurately representing aerosol interactions within these clouds persists as a major challenge for weather and climate modelling. We quantify the effect of ice-nucleating particles (INPs) on the radiative properties of a complex tropical Atlantic deep convective cloud field using a regional model with an advanced double-moment microphysics scheme. Our results show that the domain-mean daylight outgoing radiation varies by up to 18 W m−2 depending on the chosen INP parameterisation. The key distinction between different INP parameterisations is the temperature dependence of ice formation, which alters the vertical distribution of cloud microphysical processes. The controlling effect of the INP temperature dependence is substantial even in the presence of Hallett–Mossop secondary ice production, and the effects of secondary ice formation depend strongly on the chosen INP parameterisation. Our results have implications for climate model simulations of tropical clouds and radiation, which currently do not consider a link between INP particle type and ice water content. The results also provide a challenge to the INP measurement community, as we demonstrate that INP concentration measurements are required over the full mixed-phase temperature regime, which covers around 10 orders of magnitude.

A 1200×1200 km2 area of the tropical South Atlantic Ocean near Ascension Island is studied with the HadGEM climate model at convection-permitting and global resolutions for a 10-day case study period in August 2016. During the simulation period, a plume of biomass burning smoke from Africa moves into the area and mixes into the clouds. At Ascension Island, this smoke episode was the strongest of the 2016 fire season.The region of interest is simulated at 4 km resolution, with no parameterised convection scheme. The simulations are driven by, and compared to, the global model. For the first time, the UK Chemistry and Aerosol model (UKCA) is included in a regional model with prognostic aerosol number concentrations advecting in from the global model at the boundaries of the region.Fire emissions increase the total aerosol burden by a factor of 3.7 and cloud droplet number concentrations by a factor of 3, which is consistent with MODIS observations. In the regional model, the inversion height is reduced by up to 200 m when smoke is included. The smoke also affects precipitation, to an extent which depends on the model microphysics. The microphysical and dynamical changes lead to an increase in liquid water path of 60 g m−2 relative to a simulation without smoke aerosol, when averaged over the polluted period. This increase is uncertain, and smaller in the global model. It is mostly due to radiatively driven dynamical changes rather than precipitation suppression by aerosol.Over the 5-day polluted period, the smoke has substantial direct radiative effects of +11.4 W m−2 in the regional model, a semi-direct effect of −30.5 W m−2 and an indirect effect of −10.1 W m−2. Our results show that the radiative effects are sensitive to the structure of the model (global versus regional) and the parameterization of rain autoconversion. Furthermore, we simulate a liquid water path that is biased high compared to satellite observations by 22 % on average, and this leads to high estimates of the domain-averaged aerosol direct effect and the effect of the aerosol on cloud albedo. With these caveats, we simulate a large net cooling across the region, of −27.6 W m−2.

Changes induced by perturbed aerosol conditions in moderately deep mixed-phase convective clouds (cloud top height ∼ 5 km) developing along sea-breeze convergence lines are investigated with high-resolution numerical model simulations. The simulations utilise the newly developed Cloud–AeroSol Interacting Microphysics (CASIM) module for the Unified Model (UM), which allows for the representation of the two-way interaction between cloud and aerosol fields. Simulations are evaluated against observations collected during the COnvective Precipitation Experiment (COPE) field campaign over the southwestern peninsula of the UK in 2013. The simulations compare favourably with observed thermodynamic profiles, cloud base cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNC), cloud depth, and radar reflectivity statistics. Including the modification of aerosol fields by cloud microphysical processes improves the correspondence with observed CDNC values and spatial variability, but reduces the agreement with observations for average cloud size and cloud top height. Accumulated precipitation is suppressed for higher-aerosol conditions before clouds become organised along the sea-breeze convergence lines. Changes in precipitation are smaller in simulations with aerosol processing. The precipitation suppression is due to less efficient precipitation production by warm-phase microphysics, consistent with parcel model predictions. In contrast, after convective cells organise along the sea-breeze convergence zone, accumulated precipitation increases with aerosol concentrations. Condensate production increases with the aerosol concentrations due to higher vertical velocities in the convective cores and higher cloud top heights. However, for the highest-aerosol scenarios, no further increase in the condensate production occurs, as clouds grow into an upper-level stable layer. In these cases, the reduced precipitation efficiency (PE) dominates the precipitation response and no further precipitation enhancement occurs. Previous studies of deep convective clouds have related larger vertical velocities under high-aerosol conditions to enhanced latent heating from freezing. In the presented simulations changes in latent heating above the 0∘C are negligible, but latent heating from condensation increases with aerosol concentrations. It is hypothesised that this increase is related to changes in the cloud field structure reducing the mixing of environmental air into the convective core. The precipitation response of the deeper mixed-phase clouds along well-established convergence lines can be the opposite of predictions from parcel models. This occurs when clouds interact with a pre-existing thermodynamic environment and cloud field structural changes occur that are not captured by simple parcel model approaches.

Orographic wave clouds offer a natural laboratory to investigate cloud microphysical processes and their representation in atmospheric models. Wave clouds impact the larger-scale flow by the vertical redistribution of moisture and aerosol. Here we use detailed cloud microphysical observations from the Ice in Clouds Experiment – Layer Clouds (ICE-L) campaign to evaluate the recently developed Cloud Aerosol Interacting Microphysics (CASIM) module in the Met Office Unified Model (UM) with a particular focus on different parameterizations for heterogeneous freezing. Modelled and observed thermodynamic and microphysical properties agree very well (deviation of air temperature <1 K; specific humidity <0.2 g kg−1; vertical velocity <1 m s−1; cloud droplet number concentration <40 cm−3), with the exception of an overestimated total condensate content and too long a sedimentation tail. The accurate reproduction of the environmental thermodynamic and dynamical wave structure enables the model to reproduce the right cloud in the right place and at the right time. All heterogeneous freezing parameterizations except Atkinson et al. (2013) perform reasonably well, with the best agreement in terms of the temperature dependency of ice crystal number concentrations for the parameterizations of DeMott et al. (2010) and Tobo et al. (2013). The novel capabilities of CASIM allowed testing of the impact of assuming different soluble fractions of dust particles on immersion freezing, but this is found to only have a minor impact on hydrometeor mass and number concentrations. The simulations were further used to quantify the modification of moisture and aerosol profiles by the wave cloud. The changes in both variables are on order of 15 % of their upstream values, but the modifications have very different vertical structures for the two variables. Using a large number of idealized simulations we investigate how the induced changes depend on the wave period (100–1800 s), cloud top temperature (−15 to −50 ∘C), and cloud thickness (1–5 km) and propose a conceptual model to describe these dependencies.

Secondary ice production via rime-splintering is considered to be an important process for rapid glaciation and high ice crystal numbers observed in mixed-phase convective clouds. An open question is how rime-splintering is triggered in the relatively short time between cloud formation and observations of high ice crystal numbers. We use idealised simulations of a deep convective cloud system to investigate the thermodynamic and cloud microphysical evolution of air parcels, in which the model predicts secondary ice formation. The Lagrangian analysis suggests that the “in-situ” formation of rimers either by growth of primary ice or rain freezing does not play a major role in triggering secondary ice formation. Instead, rimers are predominantly imported into air parcels through sedimentation form higher altitudes. While ice nucleating particles (INPs) initiating heterogeneous freezing of cloud droplets at temperatures warmer than −10 °C have no discernible impact of the occurrence of secondary ice formation, in a scenario with rain freezing secondary ice production is initiated slightly earlier in the cloud evolution and at slightly different places, although with no major impact on the abundance or spatial distribution of secondary ice in the cloud as a whole. These results suggest that for interpreting and analysing observational data and model experiments regarding cloud glaciation and ice formation it is vital to consider the complex vertical coupling of cloud microphysical processes in deep convective clouds via three-dimensional transport and sedimentation.

Warm conveyor belts (WCBs) produce a major fraction of precipitation in extratropical cyclones and modulate the large-scale extratropical circulation. Diabatic processes, in particular associated with cloud formation, influence the cross-isentropic ascent of WCBs into the upper troposphere and additionally modify the potential vorticity (PV) distribution, which influences the larger-scale flow. In this study we investigate heating and PV rates from all diabatic processes, including microphysics, turbulence, convection, and radiation, in a case study that occurred during the North Atlantic Waveguide and Downstream Impact Experiment (NAWDEX) campaign using the Icosahedral Nonhydrostatic (ICON) modeling framework. In particular, we consider all individual microphysical process rates that are implemented in ICON's two-moment microphysics scheme, which sheds light on (i) which microphysical processes dominate the diabatic heating and PV structure in the WCB and (ii) which microphysical processes are the most active during the ascent and influence cloud formation and characteristics, providing a basis for detailed sensitivity experiments. For this purpose, diabatic heating and PV rates are integrated for the first time along online trajectories across nested grids with different horizontal resolutions. The convection-permitting simulation setup also takes the reduced aerosol concentrations over the North Atlantic into account. Our results confirm that microphysical processes are the dominant diabatic heating source during ascent. Near the cloud top longwave radiation cools WCB air parcels. Radiative heating and corresponding PV modification in the upper troposphere are non-negligible due to the longevity of the WCB cloud band. In the WCB ascent region, the process rates from turbulent heating and microphysics partially counteract each other. From all microphysical processes condensational growth of cloud droplets and vapor deposition on frozen hydrometeors most strongly influence diabatic heating and PV, while below-cloud evaporation strongly cools WCB air parcels prior to their ascent and increases their PV value. PV production is the strongest near the surface with substantial contributions from condensation, melting, evaporation, and vapor deposition. In the upper troposphere, PV is reduced by diabatic heating from vapor deposition, condensation, and radiation. Activation of cloud droplets as well as homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing processes have a negligible diabatic heating contribution, but their detailed representation is important for, e.g., hydrometeor size distributions. Generally, faster-ascending WCB trajectories are heated markedly more than more slowly ascending WCB trajectories, which is linked to larger initial specific humidity content providing a thermodynamic constraint on total microphysical heating. Yet, the total diabatic heating contribution of convectively ascending trajectories is relatively small due to their small fraction in this case study. Our detailed case study documents the effect of different microphysical processes implemented in ICON's two-moment scheme for heating and PV rates in a WCB from a joint Eulerian and Lagrangian perspective. It emphasizes the predominant role of microphysical processes and provides a framework for future experiments on cloud microphysical sensitivities in WCBs.

Diabatic processes are essential in shaping the thermodynamic and chemical structure of the extratropical transition layer (ExTL). Cirrus may play a vital role due to associated latent heating and its influence on radiative and turbulent properties. Here we present for the first time a combination of in situ observations of the ExTL thermodynamic structure inside and outside cirrus using a dual-platform approach during the AIRTOSS-ICE campaign and a Lagrangian analysis based on high-resolution simulations. Earlier analysis by Müller et al. (2015) suggests cirrus formation in stratospherically influenced air based on measured N2O mixing ratios. The dual-platform approach reveals substantial disturbances in the vertical profile of potential temperature with a weakened stratification inside the cirrus and sharpening above. Lagrangian analysis based on high-resolution ICON simulations suggests that cirrus-related radiative cooling and latent heating are essential for the formation of the observed perturbed potential temperature profile. Radiative cooling and to a lesser degree turbulent heat and momentum transport result in substantial potential vorticity (PV) production in the upper part of the cirrus and a steepening of the vertical potential vorticity gradient. The simulation reproduces key aspects of the observations and the larger-scale evolution as evident from satellite and radiosonde data. Our analysis further indicates that the cirrus particles formed in an already moist ExTL air mass over southern Germany about 12 h before being sampled over the North Sea. Our findings underline the importance of diabatic cloud processes for the thermodynamic structure of the ExTL and potential cross-tropopause exchange.

This study presents results from a model intercomparison project, focusing on the range of responses in deep convective cloud updrafts to varying cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations amongst seven, state-of-the-art, cloud-resolving models. Simulations of scattered convective clouds near Houston, Texas are conducted, after being initialized with both relatively low and high CCN concentrations. Deep convective updrafts are identified, and trends in the updraft intensity and frequency are assessed. The factors contributing to the vertical velocity tendencies are examined to identify the physical processes associated with the CCN-induced, updraft changes. The models show several consistent trends. In general, the changes between the High- CCN and Low-CCN simulations in updraft magnitudes throughout the depth of the troposphere are within 15% for all of the models. All models produce stronger (~+5-15%) mean updrafts from ~4–7 km above ground level (AGL) in the High-CCN simulations, followed by a waning response up to ~8 km AGL in most of the models. Thermal buoyancy was more sensitive than condensate loading to varying CCN concentrations in most of the models and more impactful in the mean updraft responses. However, there are also differences between the models. The change in the amount of deep convective updrafts varies significantly. Furthermore, approximately half the models demonstrate neutral-to-weaker (~-5-0%) updrafts above ~8 km AGL, while the other models show stronger (~+10%) updrafts in the High-CCN simulations. The combination of the CCN-induced impacts on the buoyancy and vertical perturbation pressure gradient terms better explains these middle- and upper-tropospheric updraft trends than the buoyancy terms alone.