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Background The core vector control tools used to reduce malaria prevalence are currently long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), and indoor residual spraying (IRS). These interventions are hindered by insecticide resistance and behavioural adaptation by malaria vectors. Thus, for effective interruption of malaria transmission, there is a need to develop novel vector control interventions and technologies to address the above challenges. Larviciding using drones was experimented as an innovative tool that could complement existing indoor interventions to control malaria. Methods A non-randomized larviciding trial was carried out in irrigated rice fields in sub-urban Kigali, Rwanda. Potential mosquito larval habitats in study sites were mapped and subsequently sprayed using multirotor drones. Application of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) (Vectobac ® WDG) was followed by entomological surveys that were performed every two weeks over a ten-month period. Sampling of mosquito larvae was done with dippers while adult mosquitoes were collected using CDC miniature light traps (CDC-LT) and pyrethrum spraying collection (PSC) methods. Malaria cases were routinely monitored through community health workers in villages surrounding the study sites. Results The abundance of all-species mosquito larvae, Anopheles larvae and all-species pupae declined by 68.1%, 74.6% and 99.6%, respectively. Larval density was reduced by 93.3% for total larvae, 95.3% for the Anopheles larvae and 61.9% for pupae. The total adult mosquitoes and Anopheles gambiae sensu lato collected using CDC-Light trap declined by 60.6% and 80% respectively. Malaria incidence also declined significantly between intervention and control sites (U = 20, z = − 2.268, p = 0.023). Conclusions The larviciding using drone technology implemented in Rwanda demonstrated a substantial reduction in abundance and density of mosquito larvae and, concomitant decline in adult mosquito populations and malaria incidences in villages contingent to the treatment sites. The scaling up of larval source management (LSM) has to be integrated in malaria programmes in targeted areas of malaria transmission in order to enhance the gains in malaria control.

Background Malaria remains a significant health issue in Rwanda. Primary malaria prevention methods include insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying as core interventions. Mosquito repellents, larval source management (LSM), and housing improvement are recommended as supplemental vector control methods. A 2020–2021 study in rice field habitats of peri-urban of Kigali City successfully evaluated the entomological and epidemiological impacts of drone-based larviciding using Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti). Methods The present study employed a concurrent mixed-methods design to assess community knowledge, perception, acceptance, and willingness to participate in drone-based larviciding for malaria control in Kigali City. A total of 248 respondents participated in the quantitative survey interviews while five focus group discussions (FGDs), each comprising 10–12 participants, were conducted. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS and R software, with logistic regression applied to identify factors influencing community participation. Qualitative data were manually coded and analysed thematically to complement the quantitative findings. Results Participants showed widespread knowledge of malaria transmission and prevention, with high awareness of the importance of larviciding. A strong support of 96.4% expressed willingness to accept drone-based larviciding, including financial and free labour support. Factors influencing willingness to participate include occupation in rice and vegetable farming and mining (95% CI − 3.053 to − 0.169, p  = 0.029), mosquito exposure (95% CI − 5.706 to − 1.293, p  = 0.004). Participants highlighted drone-based larviciding role in reducing mosquitoes and malaria risk and recommended it’s scaling up as a core component of integrated vector management (IVM). Conclusions This study highlights strong community awareness and acceptance of drone-based larviciding, with its effectiveness in reducing mosquito abundance and malaria risks, along with the safety of Bti and drones. The findings advocate integrating drone-based larviciding into national malaria control strategies by enhancing community education, building local expertise, and adopting innovative financing mechanisms for scalability and sustainability.

Cleaner cooking fuels are increasingly promoted to reduce household air pollution-related health effects, but evidence is limited whether changes in cooking fuels could alter vector behavior and human exposure to vector-borne diseases. In the context of a randomized controlled trial in eastern Rwanda, we evaluated differences in mosquito and fly density in 109 intervention houses which received liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves, a continuous fuel supply, and were encouraged to cook indoors compared to 102 control households which continued cooking with biomass fuels, primarily outdoors. Anopheles mosquito densities were similar in the intervention group compared to the control group (RR = 0.92, 95%CI: 0.33–2.55), as were culicine densities (RR = 1.17, 95%CI: 0.83–1.63). In contrast, synanthropic fly densities were 69% lower in intervention households (RR = 0.31, 95% CI: 0.22–0.45). In an exploratory analysis of houses that cooked indoors, Anopheles densities were higher but not significantly different in intervention houses compared to control houses, whereas culicine and synanthropic fly densities were similar. In settings where outdoor cooking with biomass fuels is common, switching to indoor cooking with cleaner-burning fuels does not significantly increase indoor exposure to Anopheles or culicine mosquitoes, while it could significantly reduce exposure to synanthropic flies in kitchen areas.

Background Many countries, including Rwanda, have mosquito monitoring programmes in place to support decision making in the fight against malaria. However, these programmes can be costly, and require technical (entomological) expertise. Involving citizens in data collection can greatly support such activities, but this has not yet been thoroughly investigated in a rural African context. Methods Prior to the implementation of such a citizen-science approach, a household entomological survey was conducted in October–November 2017 and repeated one year later in Busoro and Ruhuha sectors, in southern and eastern province of Rwanda, respectively. The goal was to evaluate the perception of mosquito nuisance reported by citizens as a potential indicator for malaria vector hotspots. Firstly, mosquito abundance and species composition were determined using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps inside the houses. Secondly, household members were interviewed about malaria risk factors and their perceived level of mosquito nuisance. Results Tiled roofs, walls made of mud and wood, as well as the number of occupants in the house were predictors for the number of mosquitoes (Culicidae) in the houses, while the presence of eaves plus walls made of mud and wood were predictors for malaria vector abundance. Perception of mosquito nuisance reported indoors tended to be significantly correlated with the number of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato ( s.l .) and Culicidae collected indoors, but this varied across years and sectors. At the village level, nuisance also significantly correlated with An. gambiae s.l. and total mosquito density, but only in 2018 while not in 2017. Conclusions Perception of mosquito nuisance denoted in a questionnaire survey could be used as a global indicator of malaria vector hotspots. Hence, involving citizens in such activities can complement malaria vector surveillance and control.