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Determination of the cracking levels during the crack propagation is one of the key challenges in the field of fracture mechanics of rocks. Acoustic emission (AE) is a technique that has been used to detect cracks as they occur across the specimen. Parametric analysis of AE signals and correlating these parameters (e.g., hits and energy) to stress–strain plots of rocks let us detect cracking levels properly. The number of AE hits is related to the number of cracks, and the AE energy is related to magnitude of the cracking event. For a full understanding of the fracture process in brittle rocks, prismatic specimens of granite containing pre-existing flaws have been tested in uniaxial compression tests, and their cracking process was monitored with both AE and high-speed video imaging. In this paper, the characteristics of the AE parameters and the evolution of cracking sequences are analyzed for every cracking level. Based on micro- and macro-crack damage, a classification of cracking levels is introduced. This classification contains eight stages (1) crack closure, (2) linear elastic deformation, (3) micro-crack initiation (white patch initiation), (4) micro-crack growth (stable crack growth), (5) micro-crack coalescence (macro-crack initiation), (6) macro-crack growth (unstable crack growth), (7) macro-crack coalescence and (8) failure.

Three-dimensional tracking of changes of asperities is one of the most important ways to illustrate shear mechanism of rock joints during testing. In this paper, the changes of the role of asperities during different stages of shearing are described by using a new methodology for the characterization of the asperities. The basis of the proposed method is the examination of the three-dimensional roughness of joint surfaces scanned before and after shear testing. By defining a concept named ‘tiny window’, the geometric model of the joint surfaces is reconstructed. Tiny windows are expressed as a function of the x and y coordinates, the height (z coordinate), and the angle of a small area of the surface. Constant normal load (CNL) direct shear tests were conducted on replica joints and, by using the proposed method, the distribution and size of contact and damaged areas were identified. Image analysis of the surfaces was used to verify the results of the proposed method. The results indicated that the proposed method is suitable for determining the size and distribution of the contact and damaged areas at any shearing stage. The geometric properties of the tiny windows in the pre-peak, peak, post-peak softening, and residual shearing stages were investigated based on their angle and height. It was found that tiny windows that face the shear direction, especially the steepest ones, have a primary role in shearing. However, due to degradation of asperities at higher normal stresses and shear displacements, some of the tiny windows that do not initially face the shear direction also come in contact. It was also observed that tiny windows with different heights participate in the shearing process, not just the highest ones. Total contact area of the joint surfaces was considered as summation of just-in-contact areas and damaged areas. The results of the proposed method indicated that considering differences between just-in-contact areas and damaged areas provide useful insights into understanding the shear mechanism of rock joints.

Many surface and underground structures are constructed in heterogeneous rock formations. These formations have a combination of weak and strong rock layers. Due to the alternation of the weak and strong layers, selecting the equivalent and appropriate geomechanical parameters for these formations is challenging. One of these problems is choosing the equivalent strength (i.e., uniaxial compressive strength) of intact rock for a group of rocks. Based on the volume of weak and strong parts and their strength, the equivalent strength of heterogeneous rocks changes. Marinos and Hoek (Bull Eng Geol Environ 60(2):85–92, 2001 ) presented the “weighted average method” for defining the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of heterogeneous rock masses based on the volume of weak and strong parts. Laubscher ( 1977 ) used the volume ratio of the strength of a weak part to a strong part (UCS weak/UCS strong) to determine the equivalent strength. In this study, the two methods are compared and their validity is evaluated by experimental data and numerical analyses. The geomechanical parameters of two heterogeneous formations (Aghajari and Lahbari) in the west of Iran were estimated using these methods. The results of the present study obtained through numerical analyses using particle flow code are compared with those of previous studies and discussed. Laboratory and numerical results show UCS decrease and approach to weak strength with an increasing in volume of weak part. When strength ratio of strong to weak rock increase, equivalent strength decrease more severely. The findings show that Laubscher’s method gives more appropriate results than the weighted average method.

A key requirement in evaluation of sliding stability of concrete dams is monitoring shear behavior of 1) concrete joints in dam body, 2) concrete-rock interfaces and 3) rock discontinuities in dam foundation. The methodology consisted of creating a database of observed shear behaviors of the mentioned joints using acoustic emission (AE) technique. Joint samples were fabricated by tension splitting of the cores and pouring concrete on rock joint replica for simulating concrete-rock interfaces. Variations of key parameters including joint geometry, normal stress, displacement rate and bonding percentage were incorporated in the analysis. An analysis was also carried out on natural joints from Daniel Johnson (Manic 5) Dam, Quebec, founded on gneiss to granitic rock. Parametric-based and signal-based analysis methods were used to evaluate the potential of AE for monitoring shear behavior of various kinds of joint with different characteristics. Using AE parameters such as amplitude, count, energy, duration and rise time, this study was done as a feasibility study for AE monitoring of sliding surfaces within dam, dam-rock interface or inside rock foundation. It was found that AE has a good capability for showing the initial shear movement of the non-bonded joints. For bonded joints this technique can show that AE activities are occurring before breaking of adhesive bond. This is important because recording AE signals after an initial breakage of the joint would be too late to install stabilization work to be done beforehand. Of course in the eventuality that a rupture includes a sequence of events even recording AE signals of the first break is still useful. It is recommended to use this method combined with other instrumentation methods (e.g. load measuring instruments) to detect the initial shear movement of the bonded joints. Following experimental work and analysis of crack propagation and asperity degradation along shearing process, four different periods were observed in shear stress-displacement behavior of joints. These periods are: 1) Pre-peak linear period in which AE activities are initiated and show the beginning of shear displacement, 2) Pre-peak non-linear period in which AE signals are generated from crack initiation and degradation of the secondary asperities, 3) Post-peak period where first order asperities are sheared off and joints pass their maximum shear strength and 4) Residual period in which AE activities decrease and reach their minimum values. The applicability of AE localization technique was evaluated using image analysis and scanned surfaces of the joints by laser. The results indicated that this method can locate regions with rupture governing characteristics. This provides the possibility to reinforce support systems and be aware about possible structure failures before any unexpected mechanical disturbance. Keywords: Acoustic emission; shear behavior; rock–rock joint; rock–concrete joint; concrete–concrete joint; normal load; joint roughness; bonding percentage; displacement rate; AE parameters; AE source locations